Turkey is the single country of the world politcs which appropriate to accept the right concept. At first time rightist concept used after the France Revolution for named difrent politcs group after that right have passed diffrent level and gained todays mean.
So that reason rightist represent diffrent oldness tradition each other.As like that reason the defender of right politcs and rightist thought to prefer define themselves as diffrent.
Before Westernization right and left to represent unknown centrary at the Ottoman community and since 1908 years after the decleration of Constitutional Monarchy days was not seem as like that diffrentation.The first reason of that integrity of Ottoman politcs order not permit the other poitical order. In spite of anarchy, rebellion and mutiny nobody and not at all groups did not to think to change soverginty. For example after the destroying of II. Mahmud’s Janissary corps Ulema power lost their power for to affect their surronding. Since 1826 a new group founded for designate power instead of Ulema.This group formed by intellectuals which they studied at Europe and they were affected European life condition.The other reason was that the Ottoman community had not effected the political event and the power game.Furthmore not permit diffrent ideas and political programs in the community.This decision not mean that there is no other social class in the Ottoman Community, only there is no any political philosophy which creat as diffrentataion in the crowd.Religion was the single source of the community. So that direction Sultan has a great power so that it was not under consideration the other power.After the Administartive Reform the new intellectual to get started the social harmony ideas.The diffrentation of ideas and cultural with intellectual and community cause to emerge of new community project. But they noticed impossiblity of became close to power with translate a book, to publish a newspaper and write to a poet.But it was the messenger of emergence of a new classes.The literature which bound with constitution, freedom and assembly emerged as de facto after the fall over of Sultan Abdulaziz. At first Constitutional attempt to concluded with uncessful. The Ottoman Grand National Assembly closed at result of defated of Ottoman Empire against Russian war.During that time Kanun-u Esasi still save its validity but II.Abdulhamit didn’t permit 32 years for election of a new assembly for penetrating of constitution.During that time II.Abdulhamit to prevent had done poitics.The groups which struggle against II.Abdulhamit succeded to found a idea circle at high degrees school.The main contardiction of Abdulhamit was that he didin’t permit was done Western kind politics but he had to encouraged Western education.
In 1895 mid civil opposition gained as military quality which was organized in military school and to stop 32 years period in few months.After that “Kanun-u Esasi” began to act, election was held assembly opened, censorship had taken away over the media and permited to found association and making demonstartion right and multi party sysytem had started. Untill I.World War in the multi party system lived quitness.There was indirect relation with community and poitcs mechanism. Now that talk about Ottoman “public opinion”.
Now that relations increase between power and Ottoman Community and theres have comprative base of clashing politics among the community. We can’t talk about any institution within the diffrent living life of II.Constitutional for evaluating for todays “right classification”. Of this opposite valid, it is possible to describe the “rightist” all of the politics staff of the II.Constitution.During this year first unionist movement , workers strike seen.
As especially pozitivist trend affected some intellectual and members of the committee for Union and Progress. Among the Ottoman intellectual mostly appropriate this ideas but still opposite not pave the way for “poitics right” group. Politcs formation of II.Constitution was far away from doctorine behaves some exception. They didnt reluctat to violate their poitics profession for gaining the power as immediately. The reason of thet double standart behave was monopolist manner and didn’t establish democrativ quality of Union an Progress. During the National struggle politics power contention developed as diffrent than the the II.Constitution time period. Previously the government of Grand National Assembly of Turkey belive that Istanbul government against the occupying powers after that GNA was spat with Istanbul government for constitutional monarchy so that Turkish community had lived so worried and unstable days during that time.
It is possible to say that the political diffrentation in the public opinion has begun after the establishnment of Turkish Republic eliminated of sovergnity and concluded of Caliphate. After that point the mass which interest the politics to feel themselves in the one side. But in spite of that it is impossible to talk about the diffrentation of right and left during 1920 and 1930; Perhaps only mentioned about common opposition which will transform at the future. The radical revolution movement which hold by Republic government for modernate to public caused some reaction and at first time some of people to feel themselves the other part. That manner to powed the e-way for rightist reaction.The decision to pave the way for emergence of the new conservative block which they wait respect old value.It is so interesting Progressive Minded Party experince how was to transform concervative mass reaction to the political support as the short time. From the point of political profession and opinion view the founders of Progressive–Minded Party were the founder of the Republic and they hadn’t given any sign for about after their change. At same time the founder of Progressive Minded Party fought at the Independence War. Their opposition not against the basic philosophy of politics which they located in. In spite of its so intersting thet the principle “trust to public” which appear in seriously. But Progressive Minded Party closed by party manager. In the following days the revolution Independence Court to excluded many peoples because of hat revolution and it shows separating reaction on the floor. It is nor surprising that nobody try to make opposition in the policy making group. In that context if we look at the historical development of “reaction “at first time it were used for to denigrate multyparty era of II. Constitution after that during the Republic era it used against for not appropriation of revolution program. The single party years not remain only not permit to political opposition and the scene of some radical decision which they change the basis of state. Publics ideas didnt take for using and producing that decision. The National Assembly members as also members of Republic Public Party so that thers no diffrentation between RPP assembly group and National Assembly of Turkish. Republic Public Party became as legal mechanism which to legalize Republic Public Party maneger politics. During that time as many law came to power which they interested public life as directly. For example 10 October in 1922 abolishing of Sovergnity, 3 March 1924 to concluded of Caliphate, 5 Feburary closing of Hagia Sophia and 5 Feburary 1937 entererance of secular principle in the constitution. This application against the crowd opposition as so hard and deterrent. After the II.World War Turkey had influnced from the democratization movement and after that multyparty sysytem had begun. Untill 1946 to 1950 RPP follow as soft politics. During that time some of Theology schools,faculties opened and relegion lessons were educated. But in 1950 RPP lost general election. 1950 elections is so important for us about history of democracy. This was the first free, general and multi party election. At first time power change with public will. It is possible to account “rightist”the crowd which they bring the Democratic Party to the power.They didnt support Democratic Party for rightist politcs as mean of Western only they want to reveal their opposition against the followed politics during the single party sysytem. But it is so interesting that political line which followed during the single party system as the same with Westernezation “rightist”. During the II.World War some thinkers support Turkish Fascit model but begining of 1944 they gave up from this idea. During 1950 most of people became dense Islamic line excess than the Turkish nationalism.
Democratic Party was the “rightist” quality power. In 1950 Democratic Party accused to behave as faitfull for their supporter. It is so interesting Democratic Party was remain to the power between 1954-1957 but they lost vote.During 1950-1960 years Turkish right represented at first time in the Turkish political areana as like this. 27 May 1960 miilitary coup brought up the serious diffrece between the right and left. The legal power which elected at 3 times to fell over a few hours. Democratic Party supporter chhose to remain silent. During the Republic era at first time military to intervene Turkish politcs as like this.Furthmore they behaved partial among the parties so they closed Democratic Party as immideately but they recognize the right for other parties to continue their political life.1961 events to laid the ground work for emergence of Jstice Party.After the military coup 1961 Constitutional text prepared by the National Unity Committee.1924 Constitution has changed and according to authorized its useful for single party power. 1961 Constitution builded against for prevent as like Democratic Party. The first election which hold after the coup pave the way for coalition. In 1965 Election Justice Party came to power. After the 1965 Republic Public Party fell down to the oppostion again. After that they gradually to harden their oppostion style and they brought the new political style which named “left of middle”. During that time RPP changed its politics with leftist politcs which suitable for 1961 constitution.New politcs understanding show paralel ideas with other countries appropriated socialist ideas. Rightist work used by member of “left of middle”for describe and denigrate the other groups member but after that it seperated so much.Rightist word didn’t use in party and any media institution as formally.In 1969 election “left of middle” didn!t successed again and Justice Party gained again and came to power. At 1961 Turkish Worker Party established and they founded a new group.In comaprison to TWP was located more left and carry leftist identity.In other side it more easy to designated rightist identity after the founded of National Order Party.Both of two party to accused Justice Party for became Capitalist to betray for their supporter and they take the place of political scene. After that time idelogic identity came to the power in the Turkish political scene.Turkish Worker Party support Socialist program but the other side Turkish Movement Party reject Socialism and support Turkish Nationalism ideology. The balance ruined against Juistice Party during the 12 March 1971. After that time leftist and rightist movement increased by gradually with student demonstration. After that leftist group turn to armed action.
During that years these organization decreased their movement also RPP had lived so big cahnge.After Erdal İnönü Bülent Ecevit came to the party presidency. They succeded to go by vote ratio but they didn’t came to power with onself. After that years voters clashes gained more idelogic identity. Untill 12 September 1982 Turkish political life to scene so vilonce movement.
By gradually increasing contradiction between left and right reason for lost power of Juistice Party but at same tine National Movement Party and National Order party increased their power by stable.In 12 September 1980 both poitical party closed with third coup. During 3 years Turkey lived unparty systemın 1982 political life started as again.But old parties and politician didn’t take role in the new political era.ın that surroundings Main Land Party gained election and came to power. Main Land Parties aim to get a new voter group. They succeded that but in that success rightist political parties have a big role which they didn’t come to politcs after the 12 September. During the 1983 at first time the leftist and rightist group come together and succeded to establish a dialogue. We can easily say that after the 1991 election rightist and leftist clashes to become a current issues of Turkish political scene.
If we briefly to describe Turkish nationalism characteriistic we can say country love,to respect Islam ,save and continue of national value, country unity and represent whole Turkish mass ideology. But Turkish right program didn’t include any sanctional economic program.But Turkish Rightist against postivism and collectivism. They are so close to Western and so senstive about foreign threat which effect to national values. As general view Turkish rightist to seperate as diffrent groups. Nationalist, Liberals and Islamist.

Turkish Nationalism
In the essence of nationalism Turkish nations save it’s dependence along the history and today Turkish nation dont present their historical identity.So that context nationalist aim is that to bring all of the Turkish nation under to the one umbrella with cultural unity. As shortly this aim was Pan-Turanism. At firstly Pan-Turanism emerged after the France Revolution. It emerged against nationalism movement.Some of Ottoman intellectual used it for minority which they want to separete from the Ottoman Empire. Most of Turkish nation belong to Islam relegion but in Turkish literature didn’t mention as seriously about Islam fellowship. As from the geography point Turkish nations founded under the other states power so that Pan-Turkism ideas hadn’t developed so much among the Turkish states. After theend of the Ottoman Empire Turkish Republic Founded its philosophy over the Turkish nationalism and use positivism and secularism to attempt a new kind of society scheme.
The founder of Republic accept the exsistence ethnic groups but mostly they made currently issue Turkism.Pan-Turkism ideas so important during war time for increasing self-confidence and gaining trust to nation. But at a same time state didn’t permit to civil power for making Turkism neither present in the state. State increase cultural nationalism with educational institutional but they didin’t respect Turkish belive at same degree. Positivism and Secularism to express nationalism with became abstract from relegion and didn’t respect relegious value. The founder of state fear that to express if take consideration of relegion fact Islamic law became to power.ıt shows it’s effect the direction of judgment. After the official nationalism of the state some of civil power had started Turkish nationalism in 1944. But they reflect some diffrences that the state.During 1969 year Turkish nationalist came together under the nationalist movement Party. After that time pan-turkism went towards cultural and unity of feelings. The Turkish Nationalist idea which support of NMP to lean phsicologic basis than the ethnic basis and to unite the Turkish define of state. The synthesis which hold between Islam and Nationalism idea gave new power and energy to the party during the 12 September. The youth mass is very important for NMP.During the 70 years these groups increase NMP activities.

PAN-ISLAM

As like rightist expression also “Pan-Islam”not assent expression .For expressing Islamic values in very areas as especially Politcs.To call Islamist which they “Pan-Islamist”. At the Turkey ther isno other Islamic thought focus. “Pan-Islamism founded during the 19.century against English separatism and for hold with together the destroying Ottoman geography. After the founded of Turkish Republic folowing policy to force Islam struggle against interior threat. During the single party system for organization obstruction Islamist current to start use their legal right as new.
During this time”Pan-Islamist”gradually gained heaviness and to form as new political identity.This identity diffrentiation to gained speed end of 60 years. At first time was organized with Milli Nizam after transform to”Milli Selamet” and after 12 September transform to“Refah” and became unchangable actor in the political system. “Pan-Islamist” idea against “Pan-Turkism” idea because tey think that “Pan-Turkism” idea carry Arabian paganism track and cause to slim down Islam fellowship.

LIBERALS

It is so difficult to proclaim the begining of the Liberal tradition in the Turkishright because confusion of concept.Liberalism carry more free economic program defender line than the status quo.They cant count the first represent at the liberal party tradition nor Juistice never owen determine voter support and Democratic.They dint support by intellectual and media even that they punished during the both coup. It seems as contradiction liberals existence within the rightist.According to Leftist Liberals use in Leftist side but Liberals were used by Right side. The Turkish right owen its existence to oppostion.In that point we can accept that it isn’t thesis but it was antithesis.At last 40 years 70 percentage of Turkish voter feel antipathy against left. Turkish leftist always not care about rightist and always denigrate rightist.So that rightist only use politics for define themselves and to oppose against leftis.
So that reason rightist developed as new method on the politics and intellectual area and to manage their weakness to this area. Every time in Trkish rightist to approach their intellectual as uncertain and avoid to protect themselves. According to them to work with leftist intellectual more easy than to work with their own intellectual. Turkish rightist define as democracy and they didn’t rescued from anxiety for to adjective worry. So that reason we can’t say that any development of lower constitution. But they raised to capable technician. The Turkish rightist follow rekuctant position against leftist in the Turkish politics.Turkish rightist oppose to leftist block in every time.Military-civil bureaucracy founded clergy class and they so near to leftist side and they also oppose to righit side.
The contradiction of left and right never indicate the basis idea diffrentiation of Turkey. The indicating thing of that contradiction diffrences between the living standarts. But in Europe rightist and leftist diffrentation also so diffrent. Relegion to determine diffrentation of right and left in the Turkey

THE FRENCH COURT STRUCTURE

CIVIL CRIMINAL SPECIALIZED
476 Courts of First 476 Police Courts 282 Labor Courts
instance
181 Courts of Appeal 181 Higher Police 228 Commercial Courts
Courts
110 Social Security Courts
37 Courts of Appeal

412 Rent Tribunals

The courts of first instance are found in every district and there are many hihger courts. The criminal, civil and specialized courts are shown in the table. We know the duties of criminal
and civil courts. Specialized courts deal with the events like labor relations, social security matters, commericial disputes and the conflicts between farmers and landlords.

Supreme Court of Appeal
(Court de Cassation)

Also not shown in table, there are fuctionally specialized tribunals like administrative courts. They deal with the trials between the citizens and the civil servants .
There are also other courts and councils that we have to examine in the judicary system. The first is the Higher Council of the Magistrature. This body consist of the president of the republic, the minister of justice and nine others. These nine others consist of ; 2 are chosen by president’s discretion, 6 are the nominees of Court de Cassation, and 1 is the nominee of the Council of the State. The Higher Council of the Magistrature makes propasal for appointments of the judges of the Court de Cassation and the presiding Judges of The Courts of Appeal . This body acts as a disciplinary council for judges .
The second is the High Court of Justice. It is composed of the members elected in equal numbers by the National Assembly and the Senate for the time partical elections are done .
The third is the Constitutional Council. This council consist of nine members whose term last nine years and that are not be renewable. One third of the Constitutional Council must be renewed every three years . Three of its members are appointed by the President of the Republic, three by the President of the National Assambly and three by the President of the Senate . The duties of the Constitutional Council are:
1-) It controls the presidential and assembly elections
2-) It controls the referandums.
3-) It controls the parliamentary acts.
4-) If an unconstitutional law is tried to implemented, the Counstitutional Council removes that law.
5-) It acts as an advisor to prime minister when senate or National Assembly does not work .
As shown in the table Supreme Court or Court de Cassation is the last court of appeal. It consist of 24 base and 12 reserve members. The half of members are elected by the National Assembly and the half by the Senate. Members are renewed after the elections12. This court does not determine the facts in case but it determines the legallity of decisions taken by the lower court .

(2) But there is more to it than this. The reader is always carried away into a world of thought and reflection. Even it is a book about physical events, there is a difference between seeing such events in person or living through them, and reading about them in books, for then the events always assume the quality of the spectacle and the reader becomes a detached spectator. The best reading is therefore that which leads us into this contemplative mood, and not that which is merely occupied with the report of events. The tremendous amount of time spent on newspapers I regard as not reading at all, for the average readers of papers are mainly concerned with getting reports about events and happenings without contemplative value.

(3) The best formula for the object of reading, in my opinion, was stated by Huang Shanku, a Sung poet and friend of Su Tungpo’s. He said, “A scholar who hasn’t read anything for three days feels that his talk has no flavor (becomes insipid), and his own face becomes hateful to look at (in the mirror).” What he means, of course, is that reading gives a man a certain charm and flavor, which is the entire object of reading, and only reading with this object can be called an art. One doesn’t read to “improve one’s mind,” because when one begins to think of improving his mind, all the pleasure of reading is gone. He is the type of person who says to himself: “I must read Shakespeare, and I must read Sophocles, and I must read the entire Five-foot Shelf of Dr. Eliot, so I can become an educated man.” I’m sure that man will never become educated. He will force himself one evening to read Shakespeare’s Hamlet and come away, as if from a bad dream, with no greater benefit that that he is able to say that he had “read” Hamlet. Anyone who reads a book with a sense of obligation does not understand the art of reading. This type of reading with a business purpose is in no way different from a senator’s reading up on files and reports before he makes a speech. It is asking for business advice and information, and not reading at all.

(4) Reading for the cultivation of personal charm of appearance and flavor in speech is then, according to Huang, the only admissible kind of reading. This charm of appearance must evidently be interpreted as something other than physical beauty. What Huang means by “hateful to look at” is not physical ugliness. There are ugly faces that have a fascinating charm and beautiful faces that are insipid to look at. I have among my Chinese friends one whose head is shaped like a bomb and yet who is nevertheless always a pleasure to see. The most beautiful face among Western authors, so far as I have seen them in pictures, was that of G.K. Chesterton. There was such a diabolical conglomeration of mustache, glasses, fairly bushy eyebrows and knitted lines where the eyebrows met. One felt there were a vast number of ideas playing about inside the forehead, ready at any time to burst out from those quizically penetrating eyes. That is what Huang would call a beautiful face, a face not made up of powder and rouge, but by the sheer force of thinking. As for flavor of speech, it all depends on one’s way of reading. Whether one has “flavor” or not in his talk, depends on his method of reading. If a reader gets the flavor of books, he will show that flavor in his conversations, and if he has flavor in his conversations, he cannot help also having a flavor in his writing.

(5) Hence I consider flavor or taste as the key to all reading. It necessarily follows that taste is selective and individual, like the taste for food. The most hygienic way of eating is, after all, eating what one likes, for then one is sure of his digestion. In reading, as in eating, what is one man’s meat may be another’s poison. A teacher cannot force his pupils to like what he likes in reading, and a parent cannot expect his children to have the same tastes as himself. And if the reader has no taste for what he reads, all the time is wasted. As Yuang Chunglang says, “You can leave the books that you don’t like alone, and let other people read them.”

(6) There can be, therefore, no books that one absolutely must read. For our intellectual interests grow like a tree or flow like a river. So long as there is proper sap, the tree will grow anyhow, and so long as there is fresh current from the spring, the water will flow. When water strikes a granite cliff, it just goes around it; when it finds itself in a pleasant low valley, it stops and meanders there a while; when it finds itself in a deep mountain pond, it is content to stay there; when it finds itself traveling over rapids, it hurries forward. Thus, without any effort or determined aim, it is sure of reaching the sea some day. There are no books in this world that everybody must read, but only books that a person must read at a certain time in a given place under given circumstances and at a given period of his life. I rather think that reading, like matrimony, is determined by fate or yinyuan. Even if there is a certain book that everyone must read, like the Bible, there is a time for it. When one’s thoughts and experience have not reached a certain point for reading a masterpiece, the masterpiece will leave only a bad flavor on his palate. Confucius said, “When one is fifty, one may read the Book of Changes,” which means that one should not read it at forty-five. The extremely mild flavor of Confucius’ own saying in the Analects and his mature wisdom cannot be appreciated until one becomes mature himself.

(7) I regard the discovery of one’s favorite author as the most crucial event in one’s intellectual development. There is such a thing as the affinity of spirits, and among the authors of ancient and modern times, one must try to find an author whose spirit is akin with his own. Only in this way can one get any real good out of reading. One has to be independent and search out his masters. Who is one’s favorite author, no one can tell, probably not even the man himself. It is like love at first sight. The reader cannot be told to love this one or that one, but when he has found the author he loves, he knows it himself by a kind of instinct. We have such famous cases of discoveries of authors. Scholars seem to have lived in different ages, separated by centuries, and yet their modes of thinking and feeling were so akin that their coming together across the pages of a book was like a person finding his own image. In Chinese phraseology, we speak of these kindred spirits as reincarnations of the same soul, as Su Tungp’o was said to be a reincarnation of Chuangtse or T’ao Yuanming, and Yuan Chunglang was said to be the reincarnation of Su Tungp’o. Su Tungp’o said that when he first read Chuantse, he felt as if all the time since his childhood he had been thinking the same things and taking the same views himself. When Yuan Chunglang discovered one night Hsu Wench’ang, a contemporary unknown to him, in a small book of poems, he jumped out of bed and shouted to his friend, and his friend began to read it and shout in turn, and then they both read and shouted again until their servant was completely puzzled. George Eliot described her first reading of Rousseau as an electric shock. Nietzche felt the same thing about Schopenhauer, but Schopenhauer a peevish master and Nietzche was a violent-tempered pupil, and it was natural that the pupil later rebelled against the teacher.

(8) It is only this kind of reading, this discovery of one’s favorite author, that will do one any good at all. Like a man falling in love with his sweetheart at first sight, everything is right. She is of the right height, has the right face, the right color of hair, the right quality of voice and the right way of speaking and smiling. This author is just right for him; his style, his taste, his point of view, his mode of thinking, are all right. And then the reader proceeds to devour every word and every line that the author writes, and because there is a spiritual affinity, he absorbs and readily digests everything. The author has cast a spell over him, and he is glad to be under the spell, and in time his own voice and manner and way of smiling and way of talking become like the author’s own. Thus he truly steeps himself in his literary lovers, and derives from these books sustenance for his soul. After a few years, the spell is over and he grows a little tired of his lover and seeks for new literary lovers, and after he has had three or four lovers and completely eaten them up, he merges as an author himself. There are many readers who never fall in love, like many young men and women who flirt around and are incapable of forming a deep attachment to a particular person. They can read any and all authors, and they never amount to anything.

(9) Such a conception of the art of reading completely precludes the idea of reading as a duty or as an obligation. In China, one often encourages students to “study bitterly.” There was a famous scholar who studied bitterly and who stuck an awl in his calf when he fell asleep while studying at night. There was another scholar who had a maid stand by his side as he was studying at night, to wake him up every time he fell asleep. This was nonsensical. If one has a book lying before him and falls asleep while some wise ancient author is talking to him, he should just go to bed. No amount of sticking an awl in his calf or of shaking him up by a maid will do him any good. Such a man has lost all sense of pleasure of reading. Scholars are worth anything at all never know what is called “a hard grind” or what “bitter study” means. They merely love books and read on because they cannot help themselves.

(10) What, then is true art of reading? The simple answer is to just take up a book and read when the mood comes. To be thoroughly enjoyed, reading must be entirely spontaneous.

This report is intended to review and help the reader understand what Artificial Neural Networks are, how they work, and where they are currently being used. This project is a result of an assignment in AI. The report is a non-technical report, thereby it does not go into depth with mathematical formulas, but tries to give a more general understanding

1.1 Method

To achieve the objectives with this report, the report is done by a descriptive approach. The data used in this report is secondary data gained by studying, reviewing books, Internet publications, and information gained in AI-lectures taught by Dr. Terry L. Huston.

2 What are Artificial Neural Networks?

Artificial Neural Network is a system loosely modeled on the human brain. The field goes by many names, such as connectionism, parallel distributed processing, neuro-computing, natural intelligent systems, machine learning algorithms, and artificial neural networks. It is an attempt to simulate within specialized hardware or sophisticated software, the multiple layers of simple processing elements called neurons. Each neuron is linked to certain of its neighbors with varying coefficients of connectivity that represent the strengths of these connections. Learning is accomplished by adjusting these strengths to cause the overall network to output appropriate results.

2.1 The Analogy to the Brain

The most basic components of neural networks are modeled after the structure of the brain. Some neural network structures are not closely to the brain and some does not have a biological counterpart in the brain. However, neural networks have a strong similarity to the biological brain and therefore a great deal of the terminology is borrowed from neuroscience.

2.1.1 The Biological Neuron

The most basic element of the human brain is a specific type of cell, which provides us with the abilities to remember, think, and apply previous experiences to our every action. These cells are known as neurons, each of these neurons can connect with up to 200000 other neurons. The power of the brain comes from the numbers of these basic components and the multiple connections between them.

All natural neurons have four basic components, which are dendrites, soma, axon, and synapses. Basically, a biological neuron receives inputs from other sources, combines them in some way, performs a generally nonlinear operation on the result, and then output the final result. The figure below shows a simplified biological neuron and the relationship of its four components.

2.1.2 The Artificial Neuron

The basic unit of neural networks, the artificial neurons, simulates the four basic functions of natural neurons. Artificial neurons are much simpler than the biological neuron; the figure below shows the basics of an artificial neuron.

Note that various inputs to the network are represented by the mathematical symbol, x(n). Each of these inputs are multiplied by a connection weight, these weights are represented by w(n). In the simplest case, these products are simply summed, fed through a transfer function to generate a result, and then output.

Even though all artificial neural networks are constructed from this basic building block the fundamentals may vary in these building blocks and there are differences.

2.2 Design

The developer must go through a period of trial and error in the design decisions before coming up with a satisfactory design. The design issues in neural networks are complex and are the major concerns of system developers.

Designing a neural network consist of:

• Arranging neurons in various layers.
• Deciding the type of connections among neurons for different layers, as well as among the neurons within a layer.
• Deciding the way a neuron receives input and produces output.
• Determining the strength of connection within the network by allowing the network learn the appropriate values of connection weights by using a training data set.

The process of designing a neural network is an iterative process; the figure below describes its basic steps.

2.2.1 Layers

Biologically, neural networks are constructed in a three dimensional way from microscopic components. These neurons seem capable of nearly unrestricted interconnections. This is not true in any man-made network. Artificial neural networks are the simple clustering of the primitive artificial neurons. This clustering occurs by creating layers, which are then connected to one another. How these layers connect may also vary. Basically, all artificial neural networks have a similar structure of topology. Some of the neurons interface the real world to receive its inputs and other neurons provide the real world with the network’s outputs. All the rest of the neurons are hidden form view.

As the figure above shows, the neurons are grouped into layers The input layer consist of neurons that receive input form the external environment. The output layer consists of neurons that communicate the output of the system to the user or external environment. There are usually a number of hidden layers between these two layers; the figure above shows a simple structure with only one hidden layer.

When the input layer receives the input its neurons produce output, which becomes input to the other layers of the system. The process continues until a certain condition is satisfied or until the output layer is invoked and fires their output to the external environment.

To determine the number of hidden neurons the network should have to perform its best, one are often left out to the method trial and error. If you increase the hidden number of neurons too much you will get an over fit, that is the net will have problem to generalize. The training set of data will be memorized, making the network useless on new data sets.

2.2.2 Communication and types of connections

Neurons are connected via a network of paths carrying the output of one neuron as input to another neuron. These paths is normally unidirectional, there might however be a two-way connection between two neurons, because there may be an another path in reverse direction. A neuron receives input from many neurons, but produce a single output, which is communicated to other neurons.

The neuron in a layer may communicate with each other, or they may not have any connections. The neurons of one layer are always connected to the neurons of at least another layer.

2.2.2.1 Inter-layer connections

There are different types of connections used between layers, these connections between layers are called inter-layer connections.

• Fully connected
  Each neuron on the first layer is connected to every neuron on the second layer.
• Partially connected
  A neuron of the first layer does not have to be connected to all neurons on the second layer.
• Feed forward
  The neurons on the first layer send their output to the neurons on the second layer, but they do not receive any input back form the neurons on the second layer.
• Bi-directional
  There is another set of connections carrying the output of the neurons of the second layer into the neurons of the first layer.

Feed forward and bi-directional connections could be fully- or partially connected.

• Hierarchical
  If a neural network has a hierarchical structure, the neurons of a lower layer may only communicate with neurons on the next level of layer.
• Resonance
  The layers have bi-directional connections, and they can continue sending messages across the connections a number of times until a certain condition is achieved.

2.2.2.2 Intra-layer connections

In more complex structures the neurons communicate among themselves within a layer, this is known as intra-layer connections. There are two types of intra-layer connections.

• Recurrent
  The neurons within a layer are fully- or partially connected to one another. After these neurons receive input form another layer, they communicate their outputs with one another a number of times before they are allowed to send their outputs to another layer. Generally some conditions among the neurons of the layer should be achieved before they communicate their outputs to another layer.
• On-center/off surround
  A neuron within a layer has excitatory connections to itself and its immediate neighbors, and has inhibitory connections to other neurons. One can imagine this type of connection as a competitive gang of neurons. Each gang excites itself and its gang members and inhibits all members of other gangs. After a few rounds of signal interchange, the neurons with an active output value will win, and is allowed to update its and its gang member’s weights. (There are two types of connections between two neurons, excitatory or inhibitory. In the excitatory connection, the output of one neuron increases the action potential of the neuron to which it is connected. When the connection type between two neurons is inhibitory, then the output of the neuron sending a message would reduce the activity or action potential of the receiving neuron. One causes the summing mechanism of the next neuron to add while the other causes it to subtract. One excites while the other inhibits.)

2.2.3 Learning

The brain basically learns from experience. Neural networks are sometimes called machine learning algorithms, because changing of its connection weights (training) causes the network to learn the solution to a problem. The strength of connection between the neurons is stored as a weight-value for the specific connection. The system learns new knowledge by adjusting these connection weights.

The learning ability of a neural network is determined by its architecture and by the algorithmic method chosen for training.

The training method usually consists of one of three schemes:

1. Unsupervised learning
   The hidden neurons must find a way to organize themselves without help from the outside. In this approach, no sample outputs are provided to the network against which it can measure its predictive performance for a given vector of inputs. This is learning by doing.
2. Reinforcement learning
   This method works on reinforcement from the outside. The connections among the neurons in the hidden layer are randomly arranged, then reshuffled as the network is told how close it is to solving the problem. Reinforcement learning is also called supervised learning, because it requires a teacher. The teacher may be a training set of data or an observer who grades the performance of the network results.

Both unsupervised and reinforcement suffer from relative slowness and inefficiency relying on a random shuffling to find the proper connection weights.

1. Back propagation
   This method is proven highly successful in training of multilayered neural nets. The network is not just given reinforcement for how it is doing on a task. Information about errors is also filtered back through the system and is used to adjust the connections between the layers, thus improving performance. A form of supervised learning.

2.2.3.1 Off-line or On-line

One can categorize the learning methods into yet another group, off-line or on-line. When the system uses input data to change its weights to learn the domain knowledge, the system could be in training mode or learning mode. When the system is being used as a decision aid to make recommendations, it is in the operation mode, this is also sometimes called recall.

• Off-line
  In the off-line learning methods, once the systems enters into the operation mode, its weights are fixed and do not change any more. Most of the networks are of the off-line learning type.
• On-line
  In on-line or real time learning, when the system is in operating mode (recall), it continues to learn while being used as a decision tool. This type of learning has a more complex design structure.

2.2.3.2 Learning laws

There are a variety of learning laws which are in common use. These laws are mathematical algorithms used to update the connection weights. Most of these laws are some sort of variation of the best known and oldest learning law, Hebb’s Rule. Man’s understanding of how neural processing actually works is very limited. Learning is certainly more complex than the simplification represented by the learning laws currently developed. Research into different learning functions continues as new ideas routinely show up in trade publications etc. A few of the major laws are given as an example below.

• Hebb’s Rule
  The first and the best known learning rule was introduced by Donald Hebb. The description appeared in his book The organization of Behavior in 1949. This basic rule is: If a neuron receives an input from another neuron, and if both are highly active (mathematically have the same sign), the weight between the neurons should be strengthened.
• Hopfield Law
  This law is similar to Hebb’s Rule with the exception that it specifies the magnitude of the strengthening or weakening. It states, “if the desired output and the input are both active or both inactive, increment the connection weight by the learning rate, otherwise decrement the weight by the learning rate.” (Most learning functions have some provision for a learning rate, or a learning constant. Usually this term is positive and between zero and one.)
• The Delta Rule
  The Delta Rule is a further variation of Hebb’s Rule, and it is one of the most commonly used. This rule is based on the idea of continuously modifying the strengths of the input connections to reduce the difference (the delta) between the desired output value and the actual output of a neuron. This rule changes the connection weights in the way that minimizes the mean squared error of the network. The error is back propagated into previous layers one layer at a time. The process of back-propagating the network errors continues until the first layer is reached. The network type called Feed forward, Back-propagation derives its name from this method of computing the error term.
  This rule is also referred to as the Windrow-Hoff Learning Rule and the Least Mean Square Learning Rule.
• Kohonen’s Learning Law
  This procedure, developed by Teuvo Kohonen, was inspired by learning in biological systems. In this procedure, the neurons compete for the opportunity to learn, or to update their weights. The processing neuron with the largest output is declared the winner and has the capability of inhibiting its competitors as well as exciting its neighbors. Only the winner is permitted output, and only the winner plus its neighbors are allowed to update their connection weights.

  The Kohonen rule does not require desired output. Therefor it is implemented in the unsupervised methods of learning. Kohonen has used this rule combined with the on-center/off-surround intra- layer connection (discussed earlier under 2.2.2.2) to create the self-organizing neural network, which has an unsupervised learning method.

  On this Internet site by Sue Becker you may see an interactive demonstration of a Kohonen network, which may give you a better understanding.

http://www.psychology.mcmaster.ca/4i03/competitive-demo.html

2.3 Where are Neural Networks being used?

Neural networks are performing successfully where other methods do not, recognizing and matching complicated, vague, or incomplete patterns. Neural networks have been applied in solving a wide variety of problems.

The most common use for neural networks is to project what will most likely happen. There are many areas where prediction can help in setting priorities. For example, the emergency room at a hospital can be a hectic place, to know who needs the most critical help can enable a more successful operation. Basically, all organizations must establish priorities, which govern the allocation of their resources. Neural networks have been used as a mechanism of knowledge acquisition for expert system in stock market forecasting with astonishingly accurate results. Neural networks have also been used for bankruptcy prediction for credit card institutions.

Although one may apply neural network systems for interpretation, prediction, diagnosis, planing, monitoring, debugging, repair, instruction, and control, the most successful applications of neural networks are in categorization and pattern recognition. Such a system classifies the object under investigation (e.g. an illness, a pattern, a picture, a chemical compound, a word, the financial profile of a customer) as one of numerous possible categories that, in return, may trigger the recommendation of an action (such as a treatment plan or a financial plan.

A company called Nestor, have used neural network for financial risk assessment for mortgage insurance decisions, categorizing the risk of loans as good or bad. Neural networks has also been applied to convert text to speech, NETtalk is one of the systems developed for this purpose. Image processing and pattern recognition form an important area of neural networks, probably one of the most actively research areas of neural networks.

An other of research for application of neural networks is character recognition and handwriting recognition. This area has use in banking, credit card processing and other financial services, where reading and correctly recognizing handwriting on documents is of crucial significance. The pattern recognition capability of neural networks has been used to read handwriting in processing checks, the amount must normally be entered into the system by a human. A system that could automate this task would expedite check processing and reduce errors. One such system has been developed by HNC (Hecht-Nielsen Co.) for BankTec.

One of the best known applications is the bomb detector installed in some U.S. airports. This device called SNOOPE, determine the presence of certain compounds from the chemical configurations of their components.

In a document from International Joint conference, one can find reports on using neural networks in areas ranging from robotics, speech, signal processing, vision, character recognition to musical composition, detection of heart malfunction and epilepsy, fish detection and classification, optimization, and scheduling. One may take under consideration that most of the reported applications are still in research stage.

Basically, most applications of neural networks fall into the following five categories:

• Prediction
  Uses input values to predict some output. e.g. pick the best stocks in the market, predict weather, identify people with cancer risk.
• Classification
  Use input values to determine the classification. e.g. is the input the letter A, is the blob of the video data a plane and what kind of plane is it.
• Data association
  Like classification but it also recognizes data that contains errors. e.g. not only identify the characters that were scanned but identify when the scanner is not working properly.
• Data Conceptualization
  Analyze the inputs so that grouping relationships can be inferred. e.g. extract from a database the names of those most likely to by a particular product.
• Data Filtering
  Smooth an input signal. e.g. take the noise out of a telephone signal.

Data & Analysis Center for Software, “Artificial Neural Networks Technology”, 1992 (http://www.dacs.dtic.mil/techs/neural/neural.title.html, printed November 1998)

Avelino J. Gonzalez & Douglas D. Dankel, “The Engineering of Knowledge-based Systems”, 1993 Prentice-Hall Inc. ISBN 0-13-334293-X.

Fatemeh Zahedi, “Intelligent Systems for Business: Expert Systems with Neural networks, 1993 Wadsworth Inc. ISBN 0-534-18888-5.

Haykin Simon, “Neural Networks”, 1994 Macmillan College Publishing Company Inc. ISBN 0-02-352761-7

Also referred to as connectionist architectures, parallel distributed processing, and neuromorphic systems, an artificial neural network (ANN) is an information-processing paradigm inspired by the way the densely interconnected, parallel structure of the mammalian brain processes information. Artificial neural networks are collections of mathematical models that emulate some of the observed properties of biological nervous systems and draw on the analogies of adaptive biological learning. The key element of the ANN paradigm is the novel structure of the information processing system. It is composed of a large number of highly interconnected processing elements that are analogous to neurons and are tied together with weighted connections that are analogous to synapses.

Learning in biological systems involves adjustments to the synaptic connections that exist between the neurons. This is true of ANNs as well. Learning typically occurs by example through training, or exposure to a truthed set of input/output data where the training algorithm iteratively adjusts the connection weights (synapses). These connection weights store the knowledge necessary to solve specific problems.

Although ANNs have been around since the late 1950′s, it wasn’t until the mid-1980′s that algorithms became sophisticated enough for general applications. Today ANNs are being applied to an increasing number of real- world problems of considerable complexity. They are good pattern recognition engines and robust classifiers, with the ability to generalize in making decisions about imprecise input data. They offer ideal solutions to a variety of classification problems such as speech, character and signal recognition, as well as functional prediction and system modeling where the physical processes are not understood or are highly complex. ANNs may also be applied to control problems, where the input variables are measurements used to drive an output actuator, and the network learns the control function. The advantage of ANNs lies in their resilience against distortions in the input data and their capability of learning. They are often good at solving problems that are too complex for conventional technologies (e.g., problems that do not have an algorithmic solution or for which an algorithmic solution is too complex to be found) and are often well suited to problems that people are good at solving, but for which traditional methods are not.

There are multitudes of different types of ANNs. Some of the more popular include the multilayer perceptron which is generally trained with the backpropagation of error algorithm, learning vector quantization, radial basis function, Hopfield, and Kohonen, to name a few. Some ANNs are classified as feedforward while others are recurrent (i.e., implement feedback) depending on how data is processed through the network. Another way of classifying ANN types is by their method of learning (or training), as some ANNs employ supervised training while others are referred to as unsupervised or self-organizing. Supervised training is analogous to a student guided by an instructor. Unsupervised algorithms essentially perform clustering of the data into similar groups based on the measured attributes or features serving as inputs to the algorithms. This is analogous to a student who derives the lesson totally on his or her own. ANNs can be implemented in software or in specialized hardware.

© Copyright 1997 Battelle Memorial Institute

Artificial neural networks (ANNs) are computational paradigms which implement simplified models of their biological counterparts, biological neural networks. Biological neural networks are the local assemblages of neurons and their dendritic connections that form the (human) brain. Accordingly, ANNs are characterized by

• Local processing in artificial neurons (or processing elements, PEs),
• Massively parallel processing, implemented by rich connection pattern between PEs,
• The ability to acquire knowledge via learning from experience,
• Knowledge storage in distributed memory, the synaptic PE connections.

The attempt of implementing neural networks for brain-like computations like patterns recognition, decisions making, motory control and many others is made possible by the advent of large scale computers in the late 1950′s. Indeed, ANNs can be viewed as a major new approach to computational methodology since the introduction of digital computers.

Although the initial intent of ANNs was to explore and reproduce human information processing tasks such as speech, vision, and knowledge processing, ANNs also demonstrated their superior capability for classification and function approximation problems. This has great potential for solving complex problems such as systems control, data compression, optimization problems, pattern recognition, and system identification.

Artificial neural networks were originally developed as tools for the exploration and reproduction of human information processing tasks such as speech, vision, olfaction, touch, knowledge processing and motor control. Today, most research is directed towards the development of artificial neural networks for applications such as data compression, optimization, pattern matching, system modeling, function approximation, and control. One of the application areas to which we apply artificial neural networks is flight control. Artificial neural networks give control systems a variety of advanced capabilities. We are currently developing a neural network control system for a wave rider shaped vehicle called LoFLYTE ^TM. This 23 foot vehicle will demonstrate the control system at subsonic speeds. A successful flight will pave the way for super sonic and hypersonic versions of the vehicle.

Since artificial neural networks are highly parallel systems, conventional computers are unsuited for neural networks algorithms. Special purpose computational hardware has been constructed to efficiently implement atrificial neural networks. Accurate Automation has developed a Neural Network Processor (NNP^®). This hardware will allow us to run even the most complex neural networks in real time. The NNP TM is capable of multiprocessor operation in Multiple-Instruction-Multiple-Data (MIMD) fashion. It is the most advanced digital neural network hardware in existence. Each NNP TM system is capable of implementing 8K neurons with 32K interconnections per processor. The computational capability of a single processor 140M connections (8 bit multiply-accumulates) per second (35MHz). An 8 processor NNP^® would be capable of over one billion connections per second. The NNP^® architecture is extremely flexible and any neuron is capable of interconnecting with other neuron in the system. The NNP TM is implemented on both VME and PC compatible cards.

Learning versus A Priori Problem Solving

Conventional computers rely on programs that solve a problem using a pre-determined series of steps, called algorithms. These programs are controlled by a single, complex central processing unit, and store information at specific locations in memory. Artificial neural networks use highly distributed representations and transformations that operate in parallel, have distributed control through many highly interconnected neurons, and store their information in variable strength connections called synapses.

There are many different ways in which people refer to the same type of neural networks technology. Neural networks are described as connectionist systems, because of the connections between individual processing nodes. They are somtimes called adaptive systems, because the values of these connections can change so that the neural network performs more effectively. They are also somtimes called parallel distributed processing systems, which emphasize the way in which the many nodes or neurons in a neural network operate in parallel. The theory that inspires neural network systems is drawn from many disciplines; primarily from neuroscience, engineering, and computer science, but also from psychology, mathematics, physics, and linguistics. These sciences are working toward the common goal of building intelligent systems.

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Artificial Neural Networks

Artificial neural networks (ANNs) are programs designed to simulate the way a simple biological nervous system is believed to operate. They are based on simulated nerve cells or neurons which are joined together in a variety of ways to form networks. These networks have the capacity to learn, memorize and create relationships amongst data. There are many different types of ANN but some are more popular than others. The most widely used ANN is known as the Back Propagation ANN. This type of ANN is excellent at prediction and classification tasks. Another is the Kohonen or Self Organizing Map which is excellent at finding relationships amongst complex sets of data.

What are ANNs Used For ?

Their applications are almost limitless but fall into a few simple categories.

Classification: Customer/Market profiles, medical diagnosis, signature verification, loan risk evaluation, voice recognition, image recognition, spectra identification, property valuation, classification of cell types, microbes, materials, samples.

Forecasting: Future sales, production requirements, market performance, economic indicators, energy requirements, medical outcomes, chemical reaction products, weather, crop forecasts, environmental risk, horse races, jury panels.

Modeling: Process control, systems control, chemical structures, dynamic systems, signal compression, plastics moulding, welding control, robot control, and many more.

Who Needs ANNs?

People that have to work with or analyze data of any kind. People in business, finance, industry, education and science whose problems are complex, laborious, fuzzy or simply un-resolvable using present methods. People who want better solutions and wish to gain a competitive edge.

Why Are ANNs Better?

1. They deal with the non-linearities in the world in which we live.

2. They handle noisy or missing data.

3. They create their own relationship amongst information – no equations!

4. They can work with large numbers of variables or parameters.

5. They provide general solutions with good predictive accuracy.

Jump to Artificial Neural Network Software | Return to Applications Menu

General

1. 1. Rumelhart DE and Mcclelland JL(1986) Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition.; MIT Press, Cambridge,; Vols I and II. ————This is the book that started the explosion of uses on ANNs in real world.
2. Eberhart RC and Dobbins RW (1990) Early neural network development history: The age of Camelot. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology 9 ,15-18.
3. Kohonen T (1997) Self-organising Maps. Pub Springer-Verlag, Berlin. ——The definitive book about self organising maps. ISBN 3-540-62017-6.
4. Hinton G.E. (1992) How neural networks learn from experience. Scientific American 267, 144-151.
5. Swingler K. (1996) Applying neural networks. A Practical Guide. Pub Academic Press, NY. ISBN 0-12-679170-8.

Business/Finance

1. Wong, Bo K. Bodnovich, Thomas A. Selvi, Yakup. (1995) Bibliography of neural network business applications research: 1988-September 1994. Expert Systems. v 12. p 253-262.
2. Kaastra I. Boyd M. (1996 ) Designing a neural network for forecasting financial and economic time series. Neurocomputing. 10, 215-236 Apr.
3. 3. Poddig T. Rehkugler H (1996) A world model of integrated financial markets using artificial neural networks. Neurocomputing. 10, 251-273.
4. 4. Kathmann, Ruud M. (1993) Neural networks for the mass appraisal of real estate. Computers Environment & Urban Systems. 17, 373-384.
5. 5. Ask for an extended list from Answers From Computers.

Science and Medicine

1. Burns JA, Whitesides GM (1993) Feed forward neural networks in chemistry : Mathematical systems for classification and pattern recognition. Chem Rev 93 : 2583-2601.
2. Astion ML, Wilding PW (1992) The application of backpropagation neural networks to problems in pathology and laboratory medicine. Arch Pathol Lab Med 116: 995-1001.
3. Maddalena DJ. (1996) Applications of artificial neural networks in quantitative structure activity relationships. Exp Opin Ther Patents 6, 239-251.
4. Baxt WG. (1995) Application of artificial neural networks to clinical medicine. [Review] Lancet. 346 (8983):1135-8, Oct 28.
5. Ask for an extended list from Answers From Computers.

Engineering

1. Chablo A. (1994) Potential applications of artificial intelligence in telecommunications. Technovation. 14, 431-435.
2. Horwitz D. and El-Sibaie M. (1995) Applying neural nets to railway engineering. AI Expert, January pp 36- 41.
3. Plummer J (1993) Tighter process control with neural networks. AI Expert October, pp 49-55.
4. Ask for an extended list on an engineering topic from AFC.

Return to Applications Menu

Artificial Neural Networks

Artificial neural networks (ANNs) are programs designed to simulate the way a simple biological nervous system is believed to operate. They are based on simulated nerve cells or neurons which are joined together in a variety of ways to form networks. These networks have the capacity to learn, memorize and create relationships amongst data. There are many different types of ANN but some are more popular than others. The most widely used ANN is known as the Back Propagation ANN. This type of ANN is excellent at prediction and classification tasks. Another is the Kohonen or Self Organizing Map which is excellent at finding relationships amongst complex sets of data.

What are ANNs Used For ?

Their applications are almost limitless but fall into a few simple categories.

Classification: Customer/Market profiles, medical diagnosis, signature verification, loan risk evaluation, voice recognition, image recognition, spectra identification, property valuation, classification of cell types, microbes, materials, samples.

Forecasting: Future sales, production requirements, market performance, economic indicators, energy requirements, medical outcomes, chemical reaction products, weather, crop forecasts, environmental risk, horse races, jury panels.

Modeling: Process control, systems control, chemical structures, dynamic systems, signal compression, plastics moulding, welding control, robot control, and many more.

Who Needs ANNs?

People that have to work with or analyze data of any kind. People in business, finance, industry, education and science whose problems are complex, laborious, fuzzy or simply un-resolvable using present methods. People who want better solutions and wish to gain a competitive edge.

Why Are ANNs Better?

1. They deal with the non-linearities in the world in which we live.

2. They handle noisy or missing data.

3. They create their own relationship amongst information – no equations!

4. They can work with large numbers of variables or parameters.

5. They provide general solutions with good predictive accuracy.

Jump to Artificial Neural Network Software | Return to Applications Menu

General

1. 1. Rumelhart DE and Mcclelland JL(1986) Parallel distributed processing: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition.; MIT Press, Cambridge,; Vols I and II. ————This is the book that started the explosion of uses on ANNs in real world.
2. Eberhart RC and Dobbins RW (1990) Early neural network development history: The age of Camelot. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology 9 ,15-18.
3. Kohonen T (1997) Self-organising Maps. Pub Springer-Verlag, Berlin. ——The definitive book about self organising maps. ISBN 3-540-62017-6.
4. Hinton G.E. (1992) How neural networks learn from experience. Scientific American 267, 144-151.
5. Swingler K. (1996) Applying neural networks. A Practical Guide. Pub Academic Press, NY. ISBN 0-12-679170-8.

Business/Finance

1. Wong, Bo K. Bodnovich, Thomas A. Selvi, Yakup. (1995) Bibliography of neural network business applications research: 1988-September 1994. Expert Systems. v 12. p 253-262.
2. Kaastra I. Boyd M. (1996 ) Designing a neural network for forecasting financial and economic time series. Neurocomputing. 10, 215-236 Apr.
3. 3. Poddig T. Rehkugler H (1996) A world model of integrated financial markets using artificial neural networks. Neurocomputing. 10, 251-273.
4. 4. Kathmann, Ruud M. (1993) Neural networks for the mass appraisal of real estate. Computers Environment & Urban Systems. 17, 373-384.
5. 5. Ask for an extended list from Answers From Computers.

Science and Medicine

1. Burns JA, Whitesides GM (1993) Feed forward neural networks in chemistry : Mathematical systems for classification and pattern recognition. Chem Rev 93 : 2583-2601.
2. Astion ML, Wilding PW (1992) The application of backpropagation neural networks to problems in pathology and laboratory medicine. Arch Pathol Lab Med 116: 995-1001.
3. Maddalena DJ. (1996) Applications of artificial neural networks in quantitative structure activity relationships. Exp Opin Ther Patents 6, 239-251.
4. Baxt WG. (1995) Application of artificial neural networks to clinical medicine. [Review] Lancet. 346 (8983):1135-8, Oct 28.
5. Ask for an extended list from Answers From Computers.

Engineering

1. Chablo A. (1994) Potential applications of artificial intelligence in telecommunications. Technovation. 14, 431-435.
2. Horwitz D. and El-Sibaie M. (1995) Applying neural nets to railway engineering. AI Expert, January pp 36- 41.
3. Plummer J (1993) Tighter process control with neural networks. AI Expert October, pp 49-55.
4. Ask for an extended list on an engineering topic from AFC.

Return to Applications Menu

Neural Networks Background

Many tasks which seem simple for us, such as reading a handwritten note or recognizing a face, are difficult for even the most advanced computer. In an effort to increase the computer’s ability to perform such tasks, programmers began designing software to act more like the human brain, with its neurons and synaptic connections. Thus the field of “artificial neural networks” was born. Rather than employ the traditional method of one central processor (a Pentium) to carry out many instructions one at a time, the neural network software analyzes data by passing it through several simulated processors which are interconnected with synaptic-like “weights”.
Although the programming and mathematics behind neural network technologies are complex, using neural network software can be quite simple and the results are often quite extraordinary. Once you have collected several records of the data you wish to analyze, the network will run through them and “learn” how the inputs of each record may be related to the result. Each “record” might be a machine on an assembly line, or a particular stock, or the weather one day. If the record was a patient at a hospital, the record’s inputs (such as: age, sex, body fat, allergies, blood pressure) and it’s related output (such as: did the drug work in this case?) are both fed into the “neurons” of the network. The network then continually refines itself until it can produce an accurate response when given those particular inputs.
After training on a few dozen cases, the network begins to organize itself, and refines its own architecture to fit the data, much like a human brain “learns” from example. If there is any overall pattern to the data, or some consistent relationship between the inputs and result of each record, the network should be able to eventually create an internal mapping of weights that can accurately reproduce the expected output.
Once you realize how powerful this type of “reverse engineering” technology can be, you begin to understand why neural networks were once regarded as the best kept secret of large corporate, government, and academic researchers. Once only available to those with the training and the computing power, this advanced intelligence technique is now available to anyone using Microsoft Excel. (see BrainSheet) Neural networks still require a lot of processing power, but they are now quite simple to use, and thanks to today’s faster generation of desktop computers, there are fewer reasons to stick with the traditional statistical methods each year.

What is a Neural Network?

writtten by Chris Stergiou

First of all, when we are talking about a neural network, we should more properly say “artificial neural network” (ANN), because that is what we mean most of the time. Biological neural networks are much more complicated than the mathematical models we use for ANNs. But it is customary to be lazy and drop the “A” or the “artificial”.
An Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is an information processing paradigm that is inspired by the way biological nervous systems, such as the brain, process information. The key element of this paradigm is the novel structure of the information processing system. It is composed of a large number of highly interconnected processing elements (neurons) working in unison to solve specific problems. ANNs, like people, learn by example. An ANN is configured for a specific application, such as pattern recognition or data classification, through a learning process. Learning in biological systems involves adjustments to the synaptic connections that exist between the neurons. This is true of ANNs as well.

Some Other Definitions of a Neural Network include:

According to the DARPA Neural Network Study (1988, AFCEA International Press, p. 60):

… a neural network is a system composed of many simple processing elements operating in parallel whose function is determined by network structure, connection strengths, and the processing performed at computing elements or nodes.

According to Haykin, S. (1994), Neural Networks: A Comprehensive Foundation, NY: Macmillan, p. 2:

A neural network is a massively parallel distributed processor that has a natural propensity for storing experiential knowledge and making it available for use. It resembles the brain in two respects:

1.Knowledge is acquired by the network through a learning process.
2.Interneuron connection strengths known as synaptic weights are used to store the knowledge.

ANNs have been applied to an increasing number of real-world problems of considerable complexity. Their most important advantage is in solving problems that are too complex for conventional technologies — problems that do not have an algorithmic solution or for which an algorithmic solution is too complex to be found. In general, because of their abstraction from the biological brain, ANNs are well suited to problems that people are good at solving, but for which computers are not. These problems includes pattern recognition and forecasting (which requires the recognition of trends in data).

Why use a neural network?

Neural networks, with their remarkable ability to derive meaning from complicated or imprecise data, can be used to extract patterns and detect trends that are too complex to be noticed by either humans or other computer techniques. A trained neural network can be thought of as an “expert” in the category of information it has been given to analyze. This expert can then be used to provide projections given new situations of interest and answer “what if” questions.
Other advantages include:

1. Adaptive learning: An ability to learn how to do tasks based on the data given for training or initial experience.
2. Self-Organisation: An ANN can create its own organisation or representation of the information it receives during learning time.
3. Real Time Operation: ANN computations may be carried out in parallel, and special hardware devices are being designed and manifactured which take advantage of this capability.
4. Fault Tolerance via Redundant Information Coding: Partial destruction of a network leads to the corresponding degradation of performance. However, some network capabilites may be retained even with major network damage.

Neural Networks in Practice

Given this description of neural networks and how they work, what real world applications are they suited for? Neural networks have broad applicability to real world business problems. In fact, they have already been successfully applied in many industries.

Since neural networks are best at identifying patterns or trends in data, they are well suited for prediction or forecasting needs including:

• sales forecasting
• industrial process control
• customer research
• data validation
• risk management
• target marketing

But to give you some more specific examples; ANN are also used in the following specific paradigms: recognition of speakers in communications; diagnosis of hepatitis; recovery of telecommunications from faulty software; interpretation of multimeaning Chinese words; undersea mine detection; texture analysis; three-dimensional object recognition; handwritten word recognition; and facial recognition.

Historical Background of Neural Networks

Neural network simulations appear to be a recent development. However, this field was established before the advent of computers, and has survived at least one major setback and several eras.
Many importand advances have been boosted by the use of inexpensive computer emulations. Following an initial period of enthusiasm, the field survived a period of frustration and disrepute. During this period when funding and professional support was minimal, important advances were made by relatively few reserchers. These pioneers were able to develop convincing technology which surpassed the limitations identified by Minsky and Papert. Minsky and Papert, published a book (in 1969) in which they summed up a general feeling of frustration (against neural networks) among researchers, and was thus accepted by most without further analysis. Currently, the neural network field enjoys a resurgence of interest and a corresponding increase in funding.

The history of neural networks that was described above can be divided into several periods:

1. First Attempts: There were some initial simulations using formal logic. McCulloch and Pitts (1943) developed models of neural networks based on their understanding of neurology. These models made several assumptions about how neurons worked. Their networks were based on simple neurons which were considered to be binary devices with fixed thresholds. The results of their model were simple logic functions such as “a or b” and “a and b”. Another attempt was by using computer simulations. Two groups (Farley and Clark, 1954; Rochester, Holland, Haibit and Duda, 1956). The first group (IBM reserchers) maintained closed contact with neuroscientists at McGill University. So whenever their models did not work, they consulted the neuroscientists. This interaction established a multidiscilinary trend which continues to the present day.
2. Promising & Emerging Technology: Not only was neroscience influential in the development of neural networks, but psychologists and engineers also contributed to the progress of neural network simulations. Rosenblatt (1958) stirred considerable interest and activity in the field when he designed and developed the Perceptron. The Perceptron had three layers with the middle layer known as the association layer.This system could learn to connect or associate a given input to a random output unit.
   Another system was the ADALINE (ADAptive LInear Element) which was developed in 1960 by Widrow and Hoff (of Stanford University). The ADALINE was an analogue electronic device made from simple components. The method used for learning was different to that of the Perceptron, it employed the Least-Mean-Squares (LMS) learning rule.
3. Period of Frustration & Disrepute: In 1969 Minsky and Papert wrote a book in which they generalised the limitations of single layer Perceptrons to multilayered systems. In the book they said: “…our intuitive judgment that the extension (to multilayer systems) is sterile”. The significant result of their book was to eliminate funding for research with neural network simulations. The conclusions supported the disenhantment of reserchers in the field. As a result, considerable prejudice against this field was activated.
4. Innovation: Although public interest and available funding were minimal, several researchers continued working to develop neuromorphically based computaional methods for problems such as pattern recognition.
   During this period several paradigms were generated which modern work continues to enhance.Grossberg’s (Steve Grossberg and Gail Carpenter in 1988) influence founded a school of thought which explores resonating algorithms. They developed the ART (Adaptive Resonance Theory) networks based on biologically plausible models. Anderson and Kohonen developed associative techniques independent of each other. Klopf (A. Henry Klopf) in 1972, developed a basis for learning in artificial neurons based on a biological principle for neuronal learning called heterostasis.
   Werbos (Paul Werbos 1974) developed and used the back-propagation learning method, however several years passed before this approach was popularized. Back-propagation nets are probably the most well known and widely applied of the neural networks today. In essence, the back-propagation net. is a Perceptron with multiple layers, a different thershold function in the artificial neuron, and a more robust and capable learning rule.
   Amari (A. Shun-Ichi 1967) was involved with theoretical developments: he published a paper which established a mathematical theory for a learning basis (error-correction method) dealing with adaptive patern classification. While Fukushima (F. Kunihiko) developed a step wise trained multilayered neural network for interpretation of handwritten characters. The original network was published in 1975 and was called the Cognitron.
5. Re-Emergence: Progress during the late 1970s and early 1980s was important to the re-emergence on interest in the neural network field. Several factors influenced this movement. For example, comprehensive books and conferences provided a forum for people in diverse fields with specialized technical languages, and the response to conferences and publications was quite positive. The news media picked up on the increased activity and tutorials helped disseminate the technology. Academic programs appeared and courses were inroduced at most major Universities (in US and Europe). Attention is now focused on funding levels throughout Europe, Japan and the US and as this funding becomes available, several new commercial with applications in industry and finacial institutions are emerging.
6. Today: Significant progress has been made in the field of neural networks-enough to attract a great deal of attention and fund further research. Advancement beyond current commercial applications appears to be possible, and research is advancing the field on many fronts. Neurally based chips are emerging and applications to complex problems developing. Clearly, today is a period of transition for neural network technology.

Are there any limits to Neural Networks?

The major issues of concern today are the scalability problem, testing, verification, and integration of neural network systems into the modern environment. Neural network programs sometimes become unstable when applied to larger problems. The defence, nuclear and space industries are concerned about the issue of testing and verification. The mathematical theories used to guarantee the performance of an applied neural network are still under development. The solution for the time being may be to train and test these intelligent systems much as we do for humans. Also there are some more practical problems like:

• the operational problem encountered when attempting to simulate the parallelism of neural networks. Since the majority of neural networks are simulated on sequential machines, giving rise to a very rapid increase in processing time requirements as size of the problem expands.
  Solution: implement neural networks directly in hardware, but these need a lot of development still.
• instability to explain any results that they obtain. Networks function as “black boxes” whose rules of operation are completely unknown.

The Future

Because gazing into the future is somewhat like gazing into a crystal ball, so it is better to quote some “predictions”. Each prediction rests on some sort of evidence or established trend which, with extrapolation, clearly takes us into a new realm.

Prediction 1:
Neural Networks will fascinate user-specific systems for education, information processing, and entertainment. “Alternative ralities”, produced by comprehensive environments, are attractive in terms of their potential for systems control, education, and entertainment. This is not just a far-out research trend, but is something which is becoming an increasing part of our daily existence, as witnessed by the growing interest in comprehensive “entertainment centers” in each home.
This “programming” would require feedback from the user in order to be effective but simple and “passive” sensors (e.g fingertip sensors, gloves, or wristbands to sense pulse, blood pressure, skin ionisation, and so on), could provide effective feedback into a neural control system. This could be achieved, for example, with sensors that would detect pulse, blood pressure, skin ionisation, and other variables which the system could learn to correlate with a person’s response state.

Prediction 2:
Neural networks, integrated with other artificial intelligence technologies, methods for direct culture of nervous tissue, and other exotic technologies such as genetic engineering, will allow us to develop radical and exotic life-forms whether man, machine, or hybrid.

Prediction 3:
Neural networks will allow us to explore new realms of human capabillity realms previously available only with extensive training and personal discipline. So a specific state of consiously induced neurophysiologically observable awareness is necessary in order to facilitate a man machine system interface.

References: Klimasauskas, CC. (1989). The 1989 Neuro Computing Bibliography. Hammerstrom, D. (1986). A Connectionist/Neural Network Bibliography. DARPA Neural Network Study (October, 1987-February, 1989). MIT Lincoln Lab. Neural Networks, Eric Davalo and Patrick Naim. Prof. Aleksander. articles and Books. (from Imperial College) WWW pages through out the internet Assimov, I (1984, 1950), Robot, Ballatine, New York. current news from multimedia services (Tv)

This is just a damn good film. Kubrick’s script (co-written by Jim Thompson and Calder Willingham, based on a book by Humphrey Cobb), raises a number of issues of morality and human nature, without being too heavy-handed. This film could easily have dissolved into a courtroom drama, but instead chooses to focus on the actions (and reactions) of the men affected by the court’s decisions – we actually spend very little time in the courtroom itself. And while this isn’t Saving Private Ryan, the realism that Kubrick and cinematographer Georg Krause manage to evoke during the sequence involving the assault itself, is completely believable – quite a feat considering that this film was made in 1957, without today’s digital effects. Kirk Douglas excels in this role, delivering one his best-ever lines of dialogue on film, with full-on, vein-popping venom. You tell that rat-bastard, Kirk! And the film’s ending, despite its uncomfortable feel at first, manages to restore just the right measure of hope, to both Dax and the viewer.

Compared to the rest of Kubrick’s films on DVD, MGM’s Paths of Glory is simply outstanding. The print used, while exhibiting some dust and grain, is of exceptional quality. And while the transfer seems to exhibit some slight analog noise (meaning that the DVD may have been mastered using an analog source), the resulting B&W, full frame picture is tremendous nonetheless. There is very little in the way of compression or digital artifacting visible. The detail is crisp, with excellent clarity at all times. And the contrast is also very good, maintaining solid blacks, while still leaving plenty of detail discernible in the darkest areas of the picture. Surprisingly, the audio is also excellent, in its original mono. The dialogue is clear, and well mixed with other sound effects. And despite the fact that no surround sound is used, you will feel yourself reeling from the auditory assault of exploding shells during the attack on the anthill (see chapter 10). As for extras, we get the usual booklet that MGM includes in their keep cases, along with a theatrical trailer of good quality.

As I said at the start, there have certainly been better war films than Paths of Glory. But it has managed to remain a powerful and poignant film, despite its age. And this DVD definitely delivers one of the very best presentations of a Kubrick film on the format. If you choose to pick this disc up (and I recommend that you do), I dare say you won’t be disappointed.

December 26, 1957
‘Paths of Glory’: Shameful Incident
By BOSLEY CROWTHER

redit Kirk Douglas with having the courage to produce and appear in the screen dramatization of a novel that has been a hot potato in Hollywood for twenty-two years. That is Humphrey Cobb’s “Paths of Glory,” a shocking story of a shameful incident in World War I–the court-martial and execution of three innocent French soldiers on charges of cowardice, only to salve a general’s vanity.
Obviously, this is a story–based on an actual occurrence, by the way–that reflects not alone on France’s honor but also on the whole concept of military authority. Yet Mr. Douglas has made a movie of it–an unembroidered, documentary-like account–with himself playing the role of an outraged colonel who tries vainly to intercede. It opened at the Victoria yesterday.
To a certain extent, this forthright picture has the impact of hard reality, mainly because its frank avowal of agonizing, uncompensated injustice is pursued to the bitter, tragic end. The inevitability of a fatal foul-up is presented right at the start, when an ambitious general agrees to throw one of his regiments into an attack that he knows has little chance to succeed. And it looms with ever mounting horror as he orders an example to be made of three men picked at random from the thwarted attackers and dogs them unmercifully to their doom.
All this is shown with shattering candor in this film, which was shot in Germany and was directed by Stanley Kubrick, who also helped to write the screenplay with Jim Thompson and Calder Willingham. The close, hard eye of Mr. Kubrick’s sullen camera bores directly into the minds of scheming men and into the hearts of patient, frightened soldiers who have to accept orders to die.
Mr. Kubrick has made it look terrific. The execution scene is one of the most craftily directed and emotionally lacerating that we have ever seen.
But there are two troubling flaws in this picture, one in the realm of technique and the other in the realm of significance, which determine its larger, lasting worth.
We feel that Mr. Kubrick–and Mr. Douglas–have made a damaging mistake in playing it in colloquial English, with American accents and attitudes, while studiously making it look as much as possible like a document of the French Army in World War I. The illusion of reality is blown completely whenever anybody talks.
Mr. Douglas exudes tremendous passion as the colonel who tries to stave off a sacrifice, but he speaks with the same kind of English that he used in “Gunfight at the O.K. Corral.” Adolphe Menjou is a bit more clipped and Gallic as a staff general who plays sly politics, but George Macready acts and speaks the vengeful general as if he were a slimy Harvard man. Ralph Meeker, Joseph Turkel and Timothy Carey play the doomed poilus (remember that fine word?) with the swagger, slouches and speech slurs of assorted G.I.’s in World War II. Emile Meyer is perhaps least effective (when he speaks) in the role of a French priest.
As for the picture’s significance, it comes to an inconclusive point. Its demonstration of injustice is like an exhibit in a bottle in a medical museum. It is grotesque, appalling, nauseating–but so framed and isolated that, when you come away, you are left with the feeling that you have been witness to nothing more than a horribly freakish incident.
Also, merely as a footnote–what a picture to open on Christmas Day!

Bill Hunt

TIM DIRKS

In a stunning, choreographed sequence photographed from medium and long-shot views with incredible tracking shots from the side, the troops sweep out across the pockmarked lunar-like landscape, littered with muddy gullies, bomb craters, bodies, debris, shell holes and barbed wire, as the barrage continues to roar. They follow Dax, pitifully blowing the whistle and waving a pistol in his hand, leading his men toward the enemy position. As the men run, stoop, stumble, and crawl during the attack, stumbling over the corpses of comrades, reactions to the disastrous attack are recorded on their faces. Men fall as German machine guns cut them down on all sides. Thousands of them are slaughtered in no man’s land before they even reach the halfway point or beyond their own defenses. Dax continues to run on during the intense attack across the smoky landscape. The French wounded and dead pile up, and the air is filled with the wails and moans of defeated, agonized, injured voices. The German fortress is impregnable as expected.
Mireau, who is a spectator [of the brutal sport of war] with binoculars in the command post a safe distance away, is impatient and hysterical. He asks about the next attack wave, seeing that a whole company has not even left the trenches:
Miserable cowards, they’re not advancing…they’re still in the trenches!
Enraged and humiliated, Mireau calls for Captain Nichols to notify Captain Rousseau (John Stein), the battery commander, and order him to open fire on his own troops who are still in the trenches: “The troops are mutinying, refusing to advance!” Rousseau respectfully refuses the request twice. Knowing that he must have written proof of the insane command – to ‘cover his own ass’, Captain Rousseau requires the order in writing: “Supposing you’re killed. Then where will I be?” Mireau screams back, threatening him with a court martial:
You’ll be in front of a firing squad tomorrow morning, that’s where you’ll be. Hand over your command and report yourself under arrest to my headquarters.
The battery commander still refuses, and eventually calm prevails.
Men are retreating back into the trenches, and many more men are still in the trenches. Dax has returned and he attempts to get the rest of the men into the field attack, pushing and yelling at them. He finds that Lieutenant Roget hasn’t ordered his men to leave the trenches. Attempting to encourage his men to courageously follow him, Dax climbs up the trench ladder, only to be thrown back in by a French soldier’s body that rolls toward him – a memorable moment. The cowardly Roget sums up: “It’s impossible, sir. All the men are falling back.”
The attack is a disaster, with the men justifiably resorting to self-protection. But scar-faced Mireau is infuriated at their cowardice and unable to admit that the attack was ill-conceived. To consequently cover up his own disastrous complicity, he announces that he plans to assemble a general court-martial for three o’clock the next day to selectively punish the regiment for its cowardice:
If those little sweethearts won’t face German bullets, they’ll face French ones!
To vengefully trump up charges and hide the vanity, ambition, and incompetence of the officers in their tactical disaster, Dax is summoned to the chateau to make a final determination regarding the courtmartial with Mireau and Broulard. Dax is first commanded to order his regimental officers to pick ten men from each company (a total of one hundred men) to stand trial in the general court-martial, and “tried under penalty of death for cowardice.” The overbearing Mireau is still frustrated that half of the men never left the trenches, vengefully believing they have skimmed milk in their veins instead of blood:
Dax: They’re not cowards, so if some of them didn’t leave the trenches, it must have been because it was impossible.
Mireau: They were ordered to attack. It was their duty to obey that order. We can’t leave it up to the men to decide when an order is possible or not. If it was impossible, the only proof of that would be their dead bodies lying in the bottom of the trenches. They are scum, Colonel, the whole rotten regiment; a pack of sneaking, whining, tail-dragging curs.
Dax: Do you really believe that, sir?
Mireau: Yes, I do. That’s exactly what I believe. And what’s more, it’s an incontestable fact.
A man with a moral conscience, Dax is stunned and sickened by the accusations, knowing that his men were pinned down under intense fire, and performing as heroically as possible. His trenches are soaked in blood, but he must listen to the crass bargaining going on for the lives of his men who are considered cowards:
Then why not shoot the entire regiment? I’m perfectly serious…If it’s an example you want, then take me…One man will do as well as a hundred. The logical choice is the officer most responsible for the attack.
Broulard doesn’t wish to consider this as a “question of officers.” They haggle over the number to be selected to be brought to trial. Instead of selecting a hundred men, a dozen men, or ten men from each company, the number is whittled down to a token number. Three men, one in each company’s first wave, are to be selected by each company commander. Craftily, Broulard opts out of attending the court-martial that afternoon, further distancing himself from the inevitable inhumane treatment of three accused scapegoats: “Oh, I won’t be there, Paul…I think it best that you handle this matter on your own.” Dax, previously complimented as a defense lawyer, is chosen to act as defense counsel.
Outside in the hallway with Broulard, Mireau stops one of his own officers, Captain Rousseau, his own battery commander (who disobeyed his orders) because some of his artillery shells supposedly fell short. Overhearing the accusation, Broulard feels the charge is “bad stuff. Demoralizes the men.” But Mireau, jittery and anxious to hide the incident, explains why he is avoiding a court inquiry with the Captain and transferring him elsewhere:
In cases like this, shells falling short, I-I always try to avoid an inquiry. It gets around among the men and makes a bad impression. Now, shelving will be the best discipline for him in my opinion.
A few moments later, Mireau also confronts Dax and continues to press the matter. Mireau threatens to break and ruin him after the affair is over because of his lack of respect and loyalty:
Get off this fancy talk with me, do you understand? Colonel Broulard seemed to think you were funny. I don’t. I want you to drop this affair…Colonel Dax, when this mess is cleaned up, I’ll break you…I’ll ruin you. And it’ll be just what you deserve, showing such little loyalty to your commanding officer.
Dax meets with his three regimental commanders (one of whom is Lieutenant Roget) and tells each of them to choose a man from their company. Each individual will then be placed under arrest, and appear before a general courtmartial by three o’clock in the afternoon. “The charge is cowardice in the face of the enemy.”
Before the trial, Dax visits all three selected men in their prison cell – Corporal Paris, Private Arnaud, and Private Ferol. All of them express how they resent what has happened to them and how they were chosen. Corporal Paris was chosen by the blackmailing Lieutenant Roget following the murder of Lejeune on patrol, because Paris knew that Roget was both a murderer and a coward. Arnaud was chosen by a random drawing of lots – and picked “purely by chance”. Ferol was selected because his captain believed he was a “social undesirable.” Dax explains to them that the reason for their selection is “immaterial. Whatever the reason, you’re on trial for your lives.” In Paris’ case, he cautions: “You’ve got no witnesses. Besides, such charges against an officer would only antagonize the court.” They must continue to act like brave soldiers:
Stick to the stories you’ve told me, and don’t let the prosecutor shake you out of them. Now remember, you’ll be soldiers in the presence of superior officers, so act like what you are – soldiers! – and brave ones at that…When you answer questions, look the judges in the eye, don’t whine, plead, or make speeches. That’s my job. Simple statements, short, but make them so they can be heard all over the room and try not to repeat yourselves. I’ll do that for you when I sum up.
In taut and compelling scenes, the trial is held in the clean, gleaming, high-ceilinged ballroom of the chateau, with a checkerboard pattern on the marble floor. It is a ‘kangaroo court’ farce from the very beginning, without the slightest pretense of fairness. The president of the court-martial, Colonel Judge (Peter Capell) does not read or record the official lengthy indictment of cowardice: “This is a general courtmartial and we shall therefore dispense with unnecessary formalities. These men are charged with cowardice in the face of the enemy and will be tried for that offense.” When pressed by Dax, he argues that “the indictment is lengthy and there’s no point in reading it,” and then only summarizes the charges: “The indictment is that the accused showed cowardice in the face of the enemy during the attack on the Ant Hill.”
The testimony portion of the trial is a hurried, one-sided, rigged farce led by prosecutor, Major Saint-Auban.
(1) the first defendant, whining Private Ferol, is quickly brow-beaten and made to admit that he retreated after advancing only part of the way across no man’s land.
Saint-Auban: Did you advance?…How far did you advance?
Ferol: To about the middle of no man’s land, sir.
Saint-Auban: Then what did you do?
Ferol: …Well, I saw that me and Meyer, sir…
Saint-Auban: I didn’t ask you what you saw. The court has no concern with your visual experiences…
Ferol: I went back, sir.
Saint-Auban: In other words, Private Ferol, you retreated.
Ferol: Yes, sir.
(2) the second defendant, Arnaud, quietly and intelligently explains his advance to his own side’s wire as far as he could go “…’til I was ordered back to the trenches by Captain Renoir.” After being asked, “Did you urge your fellow soldiers forward?”, he further relates: “Most of them were dead or wounded before they got three steps beyond the trenches.” Nevertheless, he is labeled a coward for not urging them on, even though none of the men in the company got beyond their side’s wire. Dax emphasizes that he was “designated a coward simply and purely because you drew a slip of paper marked X.” Although Arnaud had distinguished himself in the past in “some of the bloodiest battles of the war,” his testimony is overruled when it is argued that it is accepted practice to choose one enlisted man by lot as an example, no matter how many citations of bravery a man has: “It’s accepted practice in the French Army to pick examples by lot.” Arnaud is on trial, it is argued, for his current cowardice, not for his former bravery: “Medals are no defense.” It also cannot be proven that he reached the German lines, even though “no one in the entire regiment got anywhere near the German wire.”
(3) the third defendant, Corporal Paris, argues that he was knocked unconscious as he left the trench, with a large cut on his head to prove it, but his defense is also dismissed.
Dax: Why didn’t you leave the trenches?
Paris: Major Vignon was shot, and he fell back on top of me, sir, and knocked me cold.
Dax: And were you lying unconscious in the trenches during the entire attack?
Paris: Yes, sir.
Judge: Have you any witnesses to that?
Paris: No, sir. I guess everybody was too busy to notice me. There were so many others lying dead anyway.
Judge: But you have no witnesses?
Paris: No, sir. I only have a rather large cut on my head, sir.
Judge: That could have been self-inflicted later.
In a memorable sequence, during final arguments, the prosecutor delivers his summation speech to the judges, pacing back and forth, polished boots clicking on the floor:
And I submit that attack was a stain on the flag of France, a blot on the honor of every man, woman, and child in the French nation. It is to us that the sad, distressing, repellent duty falls, gentlemen. I ask this court to find the accused guilty…
Dax provides an eloquent rebuttal, pacing back and forth between the three prisoners and the three judges, while showing genuine concern for the accused:
There are times when I am ashamed to be a member of the human race and this is one such occasion…I protest against being prevented from introducing evidence that I consider vital to the defense, the prosecution presented no witnesses, there has never been a written indictment of charges made against the defendants, and lastly, I protest against the fact that no stenographic record of this trial has been kept. The attack yesterday morning was no stain on the honor of France, but this court-martial is such a stain…Gentlemen of the court, to find these men guilty will be a crime to haunt each of you to the day you die. I can’t believe that the noblest impulse in man, his compassion for another, can be completely dead here. Therefore, I humbly beg you to show mercy to these men.
The head of the court announces that the hearing is closed, and deliberations are to occur (“the court will now retire to deliberate”), although it is already obvious what the inevitable verdict will be. A quick cut is made to the firing squad preparing for the execution, where an announcement of the schedule and weapons is made by the commanding sergeant.

Paths of Glory (1957)
reviewed by
Walter Frith

‘Paths of Glory’ (1957)
A retrospective movie review by Walter Frith
wfrith@cgocable.net
Member of the ‘Online Film Critics Society’

http://ofcs.org/ofcs/

Stanley Kubrick began the art of dehumanization in film early in his career. One of his earliest and least well known films is ‘Paths of Glory’. At a running time of only 88 minutes, the film is a perfect example of what film is supposed to do: Get to the point and get off it. I don’t think I’ve seen a more sweeping film about war with such a short and most appropriate running time. War films often repeat themselves by showing the injustice of its subject matter as men die in senseless battles. Lives are lost at the hands of a court in Kubrick’s most alternative film about conflict.
The blind insanity of war can be summed up in ‘Paths of Glory’ by one statement made by Kirk Douglas: “Patriotism is the last refuge of a scoundrel.” Now, I don’t agree entirely with that statement — and that quote, I’m sure, is not meant to be taken to the extreme. Patriotism is a wonderful thing but like religion, politics and anything else in life, it’s best taken in moderation.
The result of extreme patriotism leads to the execution of three innocent men in the French army in 1916 during World War I. A fanatical French general named Mireau (George Macready), orders his lower level officers to engage his men in a suicide mission during an attack in battle, and when the mission fails because of the refusal of committing men to a certain death, one man from each of the three divisions is selected almost at random and are made scapegoats for the failed attack and are subsequently tried for cowardice which carries the penalty of death.
Colonel Dax (Kirk Douglas) acts as counsel for the men. Dax is the example of an officer who strives for a fair trial on behalf of the men. On the day the trial is announced IT IS CARRIED OUT THAT DAY! There are no formal stenographic notes kept, the trial is biased in favour of the prosecution and the audience will quickly recognizes it as a kangaroo court. It is one of the greatest injustices in the history of war. Perhaps, dare I say, more of an injustice than dying on the battlefield.
The three men to be executed are portrayed by Joseph Turkel, Timothy Carey and Ralph Meeker. Each one is a well developed character and while it would have been easy to make them caricatures, their roles are well thought out and are portrayed just as impressively as any other character in the film. Kubrick adapted the screenplay based on the book by Humphrey Cobb. As he does in many of his films, Kubrick strains the human condition in a most unsentimental way and his films have never been tame and this film shows no mercy for any of its stark subject matter allegedly based on a true story which was made public a few years after the war ended.
Kubrick uses his camera the way he does in all his films. He plunges them into our souls with characters who rarely crack a smile and with dark and haunting shadows accompanying them. Adolphe Menjou portrays General Broulard in this, one of his last films, and is sort of on the fence in how his character will be judged by future film historians. His character is perhaps one of the most debatable in the film as to where his loyalties stand.
As Kubrick’s films about war evolved throughout film history from ‘Paths of Glory’ to ‘Dr. Strangelove’ to ‘Full Metal Jacket’, the man with the vision of film serving as a tool to judge society well ahead of its time, Kubrick has managed to find tragedy, excitement, humour and traces of sarcasm which will cause selected audiences to mock what they don’t understand.

Paths of Glory
Director: Stanley Kubrick
Genre: Drama
Publisher: United Artists
Released: 1957
MPAA Rating: Unrated
Cast: Kirk Douglas, Ralph Meeker, Adolphe Menjou

Patriotism is the Last Refuge of the Scoundrel
A Review By Jeremiah Kipp
12/14/2001

AUTHOR’S NOTE: I always find it more difficult to write about films which arouse indifference, even if they’re not bad time wasters. I cannot help but feel disappointed in my review of the summer movie, X-Men, but counter that it didn’t arouse that much interest in your humble writer.

As an act of critical atonement, I present a review of a film which I passionately admire. This was Stanley Kubrick’s fourth film, made when he was only two years older than me. It’s an amazing movie which has not aged a bit since 1957. To be fair to people who haven’t seen the movie, I do not reveal what happens after the crucial battle on Ant Hill, but hint at what is to follow for those who have seen the movie. If you haven’t seen Paths of Glory, I hope my review will inspire you to seek it our at your local video store. – J.K.

* * *

Welcome to the bloody trenches of World War One, a world of mud and barbed wire, mustard gas and shells. It’s a grim universe where men wait in their barracks and foxholes passing the time by discussing what would be a worse way to die, by bullets or the bayonet. Whether it’s by gas or the grenade, death comes to us all at one time or another.

The Germans are entrenched in Ant Hill, a fortified stronghold that the French have been bombarding for weeks. In the unlikely event that it is taken, it could prove to be a turning point in the war. Tell that to the grunts who have to face a series of suicidal attacks, which end as crippling bloodbaths. The men are weathered, tired, hungry, and many suffer from shell shock which the higher-ranking officer’s regard as offensive cowardice. What are the lives of a few men when they could earn another Silver Star?

Into the Realm of the Absurd

Before they launch into the spectacular battle sequence which would clearly inspire Steven Spielberg’s opening in Saving Private Ryan, we are given a bitter taste of military life. The generals sit in their posh chateau’s munching on delicacies and drinking wine, wandering around in circles as they blather on about percentages lost and won, and the fine French carpets which line the floorboards.

When these pompous fools decide to visit the men, we are treated to long tracking shots of dismayed faces of the tired, the lost and the mad. General Mireau (stuffy George Macready, with a prissy whispering voice) approaches one out of every fifty men and asks, “Are you ready to kill some Germans?” before asking a cursory question about their wife, their mother or their courage. In a pitiless unbroken shot, we see him march through clearly indifferent to their misery.

As if this hypocrisy were not enough, when Mireau visits Colonel Dax (Kirk Douglas) in his cramped quarters to order him on his ridiculous assault mission to take the hill, he chortles, “Ah, I never got the habit of sitting. I like to be on my feet! Keep on the move! I can’t understand these armchair officers, trying to fight a war from behind a desk, waving papers at the enemy, worrying about whether a mouse is gonna run up their pants leg!” Easy for him to say, huh?

Mireau convinces his man Dax to take the hill, knowing full well that many will die as soon as they emerge from the trenches. Others will die out in no man’s land. Others will die as they defend the hill all day long from Germans who want to take it back. After a full day’s work on the hill, reinforcements will relieve them and Dax and his lads can take a nice, long break. How does that sound? Only half of the men will die.

Taking the Hill

While he knows full well that this is an insane mission, Colonel Dax agrees to accept it. The next morning, the men steel themselves for battle. Stanley Kubrick prolongs the tension by offering more long, unbearable tracking shots of Dax walking down the line of soldiers who are clearly unfit for battle. When the time comes for them to advance into enemy fire, Kubrick keeps his camera trained on the soldiers, earning every single inch of terrain they cross in painful slow movements. It’s not in slow motion, but it might as well be as they take one baby step after another into bullets and shells as bodies fall around them.

Long shots show the soldiers as ants scuttling across the vast, empty dirt. Tracking shots from the sidelines show each painful step. There are no close-ups of combat, only a faceless sea of men following Kirk Douglas (who looks like a clown, by the way, blowing into a whistle non-stop and never removing it from his lips)

Kubrick’s Bitter Taste

This was Stanley Kubrick’s fourth movie, and he was still under thirty years old. It’s amazing that they let him shoot a film which so clearly stuck a knife into the absurdity of war, the grim realism of trench warfare, the horror of combat. Even at this early age we see his penchant for long tracking shots, dialogue which circles back and forth in gratingly absurd and meaningless phrases which would be comical in a cynical way were they not so grim,

Those who have seen the film will know that I am leaving out crucial information after the battle scene. In fact, I refuse to say whether or not Dax takes the hill and how that will affect the lives of his soldiers during the drawn out, endless, tension filled days which follow. I will say that Kubrick directs his gaze at the relationship between those higher up on the totem pole and the subordinate soldiers who are squashed like bugs underneath them. A gregarious general with a healthy appetite (Adolphe Menjou) exploits Mireau for his tin star, Mireau forces Dax to win that damned hill or have hell to pay, and Dax is seemingly blind to a cowardly lieutenant (sad faced Wayne Morris) who accidentally killed one of his own men, covered it up, and seeks to destroy the one corporal (Ralph Meeker) who knows the truth.

Like a vicious circle, the chain of command ruthlessly feeds on the smaller fish. This chain cannot be broken without bringing in some matters of litigation, and even then the paper shuffling and pretty speeches may not be enough to save lives. If they do, it will only matter in that one soldier will gain a higher rank, and another will plummet to death or dishonor. The only evident Paths of Glory lie in rank, social standing and who your true friends are.

Ultimately, one can tell Kubrick had enormous power over the screenplay, which pulls no punches and sustains a grim, unrelenting tension relieved only by bleak strokes of wit. Co-written by Calder Willingham and gritty crime novelist Jim Thompson, the dialogue is crisp and strong. One soldier turns to another and bemoans that the cockroach scuttling on the table will still be alive tomorrow morning, and they’ll all be dead. “It will have more contact with my wife and child than I will.” His buddy crushes the insect and laughs that now you’ve got the edge on him.

As ironic and funny as some of this is, we’re still left with morbid dread. How does Kubrick manage to get us through this taut, compelling hour and a half as we sweat it out with Dax and his men, waiting for a disturbing final outcome which, with its thudding inevitability, could only be rescued by a miracle? He gives us hope, endless hope. We cannot believe that a movie made in 1957 would just casually destroy sympathetic characters without some smidgen of justice, and while this may or may not be so, Kubrick keeps us hoping for the very best by arousing our sympathy, our pity and our indefatigable moral stance. War is not only hell, it’s infuriating in its petty bureaucracy.

This is one of the best anti-war films ever made, and certainly one of Kubrick’s finest. On the day of his funeral, Spielberg showed some friends the final scene with a French girl singing among some soldiers in a bar, and the close-ups of these men as they are moved by this music. Some tears fall, some teeth are clenched, and, inevitably, they will be sent back to the front lines. Many of them will die, no doubt. There’s some rich, deep humanity in this scene which is often not associated with the cold Kubrickian eye, and it makes a fitting send-off to the master. As Spielberg noted, there was not one dry eye in the house.

Kubrick has no sentimentality, only hard resolve. Maybe that’s why he received no Oscar nominations for this brilliant film. He sees this final moment all too clearly, and we cannot help but wish that these poor men are treated to a few more minutes of peace before returning to hell. This is not only one of our greatest anti-war films, this is a movie for all time.

Hey Baby”
I’m the kinda girl that hangs with the guys
Like a fly on the wall with my secret eyes
Takin it in, try to be feminine
With my makeup bag watchin all the sin
Misfit, I sit
Lit up, wicked
Everybody else surrounded by the girls
With the tank tops and the flirty ways
I’m just sippin on chamomile
Watching boys and girls and their sex appeal
With a stranger in the face who says he knows my mom
And went to my high school
All the boys say,
Hey Baby, Hey Baby, Hey
Girls Say, Girls Say,
Hey Baby, Hey Baby, Hey
Hey Baby Baby
Hey Baby, Hey Baby, Hey
Boys Say, Boys Say
Hey Baby, Hey Baby, Hey
All the boys get the girls in the back
I’m the one they feed upon
Give a bit a star is born
And if you had enough you’ll get the pass
And you can tell your friends how you made it back
No matter what they say I’m still the same
Somehow everybody knows my name
And all the girls wanna get with the boys
And the boys really like it
All the boys say,
Hey Baby, Hey Baby, Hey
Girls Say, Girls Say,
Hey Baby, Hey Baby, Hey
Hey Baby Baby
Hey Baby, Hey Baby, Hey
Boys Say, Boys Say
Hey Baby, Hey Baby, Hey
All the boys get the girls in the back
Check it out, it’s Bounty Killer, and No Doubt
Jump on the stage makes me goin crazy
Afterwards myself and one of them gorgeous ladies
There is no need to be actin shady
Comon baby, hey hey baby
When you rock your hips you know that it amaze me
Got me off the hook and nothing else don’t phase me
Can you be my one and only sunshine lady
If no, no maybe, Hey Baby
I’m just sippin on chamomile
Watching boys and girls and their sex appeal
With a stranger in the face who says he knows my mom
And went to my high school

I’M OUTTA LOVE
Ooooha
Whoa Yeah yeha yeah yeah
Oh yeah
Aha

Now baby come on
Don’t claim that love you never let me feel
I should have known
‘Cause you’ve brought nothing real
Come on be a man about it
You won’t die
I ain’t got no more tears to cry
And I can’t take this no more
You know I gotta let it go
And you know

I’m outta love
Set me free
And let me out this misery
Just show me the way to get my life again
‘Cause you can’t handle me
(I said) I’m outta love
Can’t you see
Baby that you gotta set me free
I’m outta love

Yeah

Said how many times
Have I tried to turn this love around?
But every time
You just let me down
Come on be a man about it
You’ll survive
True that you can work it out all right
Tell me, yesterday
Did you know?
I’d be the one to let you go?
And you know

I’m outta love
Set me free
(Set me free, yeah)
And let me out this misery
(Oh let me out this misery)
Just show me the way to get my life again
You can’t handle me
(I said) I’m outta love
(I’m outta love)
Can’t you see
Baby that you gotta set me free
I’m outta

Let me get over you
The way you’ve gotten over me too, yeah
Seems like my time has come
And now I’m moving on
I’ll be stronger

I’m outta love
Set me free
(Set me free)
And let me out this misery
(Yeah, yeah)
Show me the way to get my life again
(Show me the way, my life again)
You can’t handle me
(No no, no no)
(I said) I’m outta love
(I’m outta love)
Set me free
(Set me free)
And let me out this misery
(Yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah)
Show me the way to get my life again
You can’t handle me
(I said) I’m outta love
Can’t you see
(Can’t you see) Baby that you gotta set me free
I’m outta love
Yeah yeah yeah yeah

I’m outta love
Set me free
(No no no no no no)
And let me out this misery
Just show me the way to get my life again
You can’t handle me
(No no nobody)
(I said) I’m outta love
(Oh yeah, oh yeah)
Set me free And let me out this misery

Around 1886 Albert Einstein began his school career in Munich. As well as his violin lessons, which he had from age six to age thirteen, he also had religious education at home where he was taught Judaism. Two years later he entered the Luitpold Gymnasium and after this his religious education was given at school. He studied mathematics, in particular the calculus, beginning around 1891.
In 1894 Einstein’s family moved to Milan but Einstein remained in Munich. In 1895 Einstein failed an examination that would have allowed him to study for a diploma as an electrical engineer at the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule in Zurich. Einstein renounced German citizenship in 1896 and was to be stateless for a number of years. He did not even apply for Swiss citizenship until 1899, citizenship being granted in 1901.
Following the failing of the entrance exam to the ETH, Einstein attended secondary school at Aarau planning to use this route to enter the ETH in Zurich. While at Aarau he wrote an essay (for which was only given a little above half marks!) in which he wrote of his plans for the future, see [13]:-
If I were to have the good fortune to pass my examinations, I would go to Zurich. I would stay there for four years in order to study mathematics and physics. I imagine myself becoming a teacher in those branches of the natural sciences, choosing the theoretical part of them. Here are the reasons which lead me to this plan. Above all, it is my disposition for abstract and mathematical thought, and my lack of imagination and practical ability.
Indeed Einstein succeeded with his plan graduating in 1900 as a teacher of mathematics and physics. One of his friends at ETH was Marcel Grossmann who was in the same class as Einstein. Einstein tried to obtain a post, writing to Hurwitz who held out some hope of a position but nothing came of it. Three of Einstein’s fellow students, including Grossmann, were appointed assistants at ETH in Zurich but clearly Einstein had not impressed enough and still in 1901 he was writing round universities in the hope of obtaining a job, but without success.
He did manage to avoid Swiss military service on the grounds that he had flat feet and varicose veins. By mid 1901 he had a temporary job as a teacher, teaching mathematics at the Technical High School in Winterthur. Around this time he wrote:-
I have given up the ambition to get to a university …
Another temporary position teaching in a private school in Schaffhausen followed. Then Grossmann’s father tried to help Einstein get a job by recommending him to the director of the patent office in Bern. Einstein was appointed as a technical expert third class.
Einstein worked in this patent office from 1902 to 1909, holding a temporary post when he was first appointed, but by 1904 the position was made permanent and in 1906 he was promoted to technical expert second class. While in the Bern patent office he completed an astonishing range of theoretical physics publications, written in his spare time without the benefit of close contact with scientific literature or colleagues.
Einstein earned a doctorate from the University of Zurich in 1905 for a thesis On a new determination of molecular dimensions. He dedicated the thesis to Grossmann.
In the first of three papers, all written in 1905, Einstein examined the phenomenon discovered by Max Planck, according to which electromagnetic energy seemed to be emitted from radiating objects in discrete quantities. The energy of these quanta was directly proportional to the frequency of the radiation. This seemed to contradict classical electromagnetic theory, based on Maxwell’s equations and the laws of thermodynamics which assumed that electromagnetic energy consisted of waves which could contain any small amount of energy. Einstein used Planck’s quantum hypothesis to describe the electromagnetic radiation of light.
Einstein’s second 1905 paper proposed what is today called the special theory of relativity. He based his new theory on a reinterpretation of the classical principle of relativity, namely that the laws of physics had to have the same form in any frame of reference. As a second fundamental hypothesis, Einstein assumed that the speed of light remained constant in all frames of reference, as required by Maxwell’s theory.
Later in 1905 Einstein showed how mass and energy were equivalent. Einstein was not the first to propose all the components of special theory of relativity. His contribution is unifying important parts of classical mechanics and Maxwell’s electrodynamics.
The third of Einstein’s papers of 1905 concerned statistical mechanics, a field of that had been studied by Ludwig Boltzmann and Josiah Gibbs.
After 1905 Einstein continued working in the areas described above. He made important contributions to quantum theory, but he sought to extend the special theory of relativity to phenomena involving acceleration. The key appeared in 1907 with the principle of equivalence, in which gravitational acceleration was held to be indistinguishable from acceleration caused by mechanical forces. Gravitational mass was therefore identical with inertial mass.
In 1908 Einstein became a lecturer at the University of Bern after submitting his Habilitation thesis Consequences for the constitution of radiation following from the energy distribution law of black bodies. The following year he become professor of physics at the University of Zurich, having resigned his lectureship at Bern and his job in the patent office in Bern.
By 1909 Einstein was recognised as a leading scientific thinker and in that year he resigned from the patent office. He was appointed a full professor at the Karl-Ferdinand University in Prague in 1911. In fact 1911 was a very significant year for Einstein since he was able to make preliminary predictions about how a ray of light from a distant star, passing near the Sun, would appear to be bent slightly, in the direction of the Sun. This would be highly significant as it would lead to the first experimental evidence in favour of Einstein’s theory.
About 1912, Einstein began a new phase of his gravitational research, with the help of his mathematician friend Marcel Grossmann, by expressing his work in terms of the tensor calculus of Tullio Levi-Civita and Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro. Einstein called his new work the general theory of relativity. He moved from Prague to Zurich in 1912 to take up a chair at the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule in Zurich.
Einstein returned to Germany in 1914 but did not reapply for German citizenship. What he accepted was an impressive offer. It was a research position in the Prussian Academy of Sciences together with a chair (but no teaching duties) at the University of Berlin. He was also offered the directorship of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Physics in Berlin which was about to be established.
After a number of false starts Einstein published, late in 1915, the definitive version of general theory. Just before publishing this work he lectured on general relativity at Göttingen and he wrote:-
To my great joy, I completely succeeded in convincing Hilbert and Klein.
In fact Hilbert submitted for publication, a week before Einstein completed his work, a paper which contains the correct field equations of general relativity.
When British eclipse expeditions in 1919 confirmed his predictions, Einstein was idolised by the popular press. The London Times ran the headline on 7 November 1919:-
Revolution in science – New theory of the Universe – Newtonian ideas overthrown.
In 1920 Einstein’s lectures in Berlin were disrupted by demonstrations which, although officially denied, were almost certainly anti-Jewish. Certainly there were strong feelings expressed against his works during this period which Einstein replied to in the press quoting Lorentz, Planck and Eddington as supporting his theories and stating that certain Germans would have attacked them if he had been:-
… a German national with or without swastika instead of a Jew with liberal international convictions…
During 1921 Einstein made his first visit to the United States. His main reason was to raise funds for the planned Hebrew University of Jerusalem. However he received the Barnard Medal during his visit and lectured several times on relativity. He is reported to have commented to the chairman at the lecture he gave in a large hall at Princeton which was overflowing with people:-
I never realised that so many Americans were interested in tensor analysis.
Einstein received the Nobel Prize in 1921 but not for relativity rather for his 1905 work on the photoelectric effect. In fact he was not present in December 1922 to receive the prize being on a voyage to Japan. Around this time he made many international visits. He had visited Paris earlier in 1922 and during 1923 he visited Palestine. After making his last major scientific discovery on the association of waves with matter in 1924 he made further visits in 1925, this time to South America.
Among further honours which Einstein received were the Copley Medal of the Royal Society in 1925 and the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1926.
Niels Bohr and Einstein were to carry on a debate on quantum theory which began at the Solvay Conference in 1927. Planck, Niels Bohr, de Broglie, Heisenberg, Schrödinger and Dirac were at this conference, in addition to Einstein. Einstein had declined to give a paper at the conference and:-
… said hardly anything beyond presenting a very simple objection to the probability interpretation …. Then he fell back into silence …
Indeed Einstein’s life had been hectic and he was to pay the price in 1928 with a physical collapse brought on through overwork. However he made a full recovery despite having to take things easy throughout 1928.
By 1930 he was making international visits again, back to the United States. A third visit to the United States in 1932 was followed by the offer of a post at Princeton. The idea was that Einstein would spend seven months a year in Berlin, five months at Princeton. Einstein accepted and left Germany in December 1932 for the United States. The following month the Nazis came to power in Germany and Einstein was never to return there.
During 1933 Einstein travelled in Europe visiting Oxford, Glasgow, Brussels and Zurich. Offers of academic posts which he had found it so hard to get in 1901, were plentiful. He received offers from Jerusalem, Leiden, Oxford, Madrid and Paris.
What was intended only as a visit became a permanent arrangement by 1935 when he applied and was granted permanent residency in the United States. At Princeton his work attempted to unify the laws of physics. However he was attempting problems of great depth and he wrote:-
I have locked myself into quite hopeless scientific problems – the more so since, as an elderly man, I have remained estranged from the society here…
In 1940 Einstein became a citizen of the United States, but chose to retain his Swiss citizenship. He made many contributions to peace during his life. In 1944 he made a contribution to the war effort by hand writing his 1905 paper on special relativity and putting it up for auction. It raised six million dollars, the manuscript today being in the Library of Congress.
By 1949 Einstein was unwell. A spell in hospital helped him recover but he began to prepare for death by drawing up his will in 1950. He left his scientific papers to the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, a university which he had raised funds for on his first visit to the USA, served as a governor of the university from 1925 to 1928 but he had turned down the offer of a post in 1933 as he was very critical of its administration.
One more major event was to take place in his life. After the death of the first president of Israel in 1952, the Israeli government decided to offer the post of second president to Einstein. He refused but found the offer an embarrassment since it was hard for him to refuse without causing offence.
One week before his death Einstein signed his last letter. It was a letter to Bertrand Russell in which he agreed that his name should go on a manifesto urging all nations to give up nuclear weapons. It is fitting that one of his last acts was to argue, as he had done all his life, for international peace.
Einstein was cremated at Trenton, New Jersey at 4 pm on 18 April 1955 (the day of his death). His ashes were scattered at an undisclosed place.
Pictures of Albert Einstein

Drawing by Iutta Waloschek.

Further pictures of Albert Einstein

With his wife Mileva and first son Hans Albert in 1904
Becoming an American citizen in 1940 with his secretary Dukas and stepdaughter Margot

Visiting the USA in 1921 with his second wife Elsa

A larger copy of this USA stamp is at this link.

On a Ghanaian stamp

A larger copy of this Israeli banknote is at this link.

Albert Einstein, 1879 – 1955
Albert Einstein, a German-American physists, gave so much to this country. Einstein was born in Ulm on March 14, 1879, and spent his youth in Munich, where his family owned a small shop that manufactured electric machinery. He died in Princeton, April 18, 1955.
When repeated business failure led the family to leave Germany for Milan, Italy, Einstein, who was then 15 years old, withdrew from the schools of Munich. He stayed a year with his parents in Milan ,then left to finish secondary school in Arrau, Switzerland, and entered the Swiss National Polytechnic in Zürich .Again the schools here didn’t satisfy Einstein. He often cut classes and used the time to study physics on his own or to play violin. He graduated in 1900 but his professors disliked him and wouldn’t recommend him for a position in the University.
For two years Einstein was a tutor and substitute teacher but, in 1902 he secured a position as an examiner in a Swiss patent office in Bern. He married Mileva Mariç in 1903, one of his classmates at the polytechnic. They had two sons before getting a divorced. Later, Einstein remarried.
In 1905 Einstein received his doctorate from the University of Zürich for a theoretical dissertation on the dimensions of molecules, and he also published three theoretical papers important to the development of 20th-century physics. The first of these, on Brownian motion, made significant predictions about the motion of particles that are randomly distributed in a fluid, which were later proved by an experiment. The second paper, on the photoelectric effect, presented a hypothesis on the nature of light. Einstein not only proposed that under certain circumstances light can be considered as consisting of particles, but he also hypothesized that the energy carried by a photon is proportional to the frequency of the radiation. The formula for this hypothesis is stated , E being the energy of the radiation, h being a universal constant known as Planck’s constant,and u being the frequency of the radiation, E=hu .The proposal that the energy contained within a light beam is transferred in individual units,called quanta, contradicted the hundred-year-old belief that light energy was a manifestation of continuous processes. Virtually no one accepted Einstein’s proposal, even Robert Andrews Millikan was surprised when he proved the theory correct.
Einstein’s third major paper finished 1905, ” On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies “, contained what became known as the special theory of relativity. For so long philosophers had been trying to understand the nature of matter and radiation, and how they interacted together. Neither the mechanical world view or the electromagnetic world view was capable of providing a consistent explanation for the way radiation and matter interact when viewed by an observer at rest and an observer moving at uniform speed.
In the spring of 1905, after considering these problems for ten years, Einstein realized that the problem lay in a theory of measurement, not in a theory of matter. At the center of this special theory of relativity was the realization that all measurements of time and space depend on judgments as to whether two distant events occur simultaneously. This led him to develop a theory based on the principle of relativity, that says physical laws are the same in all inertial reference systems, and the principle of the invariance of the speed of light, which states that the speed of light in a vacuum is a universal constant. He was then able to provide a correct description of physical events in different inertial frames of reference.Again, no one understood Einstein’s argument.
Einstein beleived that a good theory is one in which a minimum number of postulates is required to account for the physical evidence. This sparseness of postulates was what made his work so difficult for colleagues to comprehend, let alone support.However, Einstein did have important supporters. His chief patron was the German physicist Max Planck.After staying at the patent office for four years he moved rapidly upward in the German-speaking academic world. His first academic appointment was in 1909 at the University of Zürich, then in 1911 he moved to the German-speaking university at Prague, and in 1912 he returned to the Swiss National Polytechnic in Zürich. Finally,he was appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in Berlin in 1913.
After 1919, Einstein became internationally renowned. He accrued honors and awards, including the Nobel Prize in physics in 1922, from various world scientific societies.The two social movements that received his full support were pacifism and Zionism. During World War I he was one of a handful of German academics willing to publicly decry Germany’s involvement in the war. After the war his continued public support of pacifist and Zionist goals made him the target of vicious attacks. Even his scientific theories were publicly ridiculed, especially the theory of relativity. When Hitler came to power, Einstein immediately decided to leave Germany and move to the United States. He took a position at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey. While continuing his efforts on behalf of world Zionism, Einstein renounced his former pacifist stand in the face of the huge threat to humankind posed by the Nazis in Germany.
In 1939 Einstein collaborated with several other physicists in writing a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, pointing out the possibility of making an atomic bomb and the likelihood that the German government was embarking on such a course. The letter, which bore only Einstein’s signature, helped lend urgency to efforts in the U.S. to build the atomic bomb, even though Einstein himself played no role in the work and knew nothing about it .
After the war, Einstein was active in the cause of international disarmament and world government. He continued his active support of Zionism but declined the offer made by leaders of the state of Israel to become president of that country. In the U.S. he spoke out on the need for the nation’s leaders to make any sacrifice necessary to preserve political freedom. Einstein died in Princeton on April 18, 1955. Einstein’s efforts in behalf of social causes have sometimes been viewed as unrealistic. In fact, his proposals were always carefully thought out. Like his scientific theories, they were motivated by sound intuition based on a careful assessment of evidence and observation. Einstein gave much of himself to political and social causes,but, science always came first, because, he often said, only the discovery of the nature of the universe would have lasting meaning.

We can know things by acquaintance, which our experience crated. As Bertrand Russell said, experience includes “ everything we do and everything that happens to us, it encompasses sensation and emotions and pains and aesthetic experiences and mystical transport”.

The fourth source of evidence for our being justified in our belief is memory. What is to remember something? Remembering something is; thinking about past and recalling it back to our minds. This can be an event, can be some theoretical stuff or can be an experience you had before. It is function of the human capacity. In Locke’s words, “To remember is to undergo a certain sort of mental experience. In particular, it is to experience an image, a memory-image, which reproduces some past sense experience. The image might even be said to be literally a reproduction of the original sense-impression, which has, in the mean time, been stored away in the mind. This image provides us with the information we are then said to remember; it is because we have and experience the image that we have the particular piece of memory.” Memory is generally reliable in a simple way. Many people may remember things differently. I remember that the Radcliffe Camera was looking like a library. However my friend remembers, it was looking like a mosque. Also, it is not possible to remember things wrong; when people get older they will all start to forget, either remember things wrong. In addition to that, we can remember the things that we get wrong. For example, I could remember Radcliffe is a library however I might learn it wrong from the start.

Next source of evidence, which we will consider for our being justified in our belief, is authority. I know the mean distance from the earth to the sun is 150 000 000 kilometres or I know that the Earth turns around the Sun about in 365 days, because I have been told this by some one who is an authority. Can we trust it or not? It really depends the kind of authority, if your authority is reliable and if it has smart reasons and evidences to prove the idea then you might trust it. However, there are authorities, which are not reliable because they are biased. Like, some media and society, because they are looking the solutions, as they want to.

Practicing another way of acquiring knowledge perfectly. You can practice playing an instrument in order to learn more perfectly. The most important thing that we learned by practicing is language. We all practiced to say the words more clearly when we were small babies.

Other sources of evidence are belief and faith. There is a big difference in believing and knowing. I am free to believe everything but I cannot know everything. For example; I believe I am going to go to heaven or hell after I die in my other life. Who knows that is true? Who can justify this belief by showing evidence to it? So, I cannot say, “I know it” in this circumstance, I can only say, “I believe it”.

Also, introspection, empathy and conscience are other set of sources of evidence. These terms are about our feelings that are examined with the similar experiences before or examined with our feelings. In short, they are evaluation of our knowledge as well as they are the ways of acquiring knowledge. For example: I know by empathy, who has failed the International Baccalaureate diploma, feels; by putting myself into her position.

In addition to all we can know things instinctively, for example how to breathe. Instinct is certainly a way of knowing we all have that mostly concerned with our physical survival. For example, animals survive instinctively.

We can receive knowledge into our brains, only through the connections that link the brain to the real world. These connections linked to our eyes, which respond to wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation or light; our ears, which respond to changes in air pressure or sound; our skin, which senses change in temperature and humidity or tactility; our noses and tongues which respond to chemicals or smell and taste. Brain receives all these impulses and messages. When I was walking on George Street, I closed my eyes and try to think like a blind person. I heard noises of people and their steps and the music coming from shops. I think it is not difficult to understand what kind of place is you are in by perceptions, actually in George Street. In other example, when I entered the covered market, I easily understood there are some butchers inside it from the smell. As in these examples, our perceptions work most of the time. However there are many problems that might occur when we are acquiring knowledge with our perceptions. Because perceptions might affect from social and cultural condition, past experience, existing learning structures, biological limitations and dependence on language of person.

These are all the ways that we acquire knowledge. However acquiring knowledge is not enough, we should now how to analyze them and how to separate wrong and true ideas. To separate the true ideas we use our perceptions or either we use the method of deduction and induction.

Inductive logic is a way to getting ideas and producing a general rule by generalizing from particular observations. However induction is not justified. According to David Hume, all inductive generalizations rest on the idea that “the future will resemble the past”. We observe that the sun has risen on every previous morning, and we can say that the sun will rise tomorrow. But how can we show that the future will continue to resemble the past? We can’t.

Deductive logic is certain one that does not change and that we are 100% sure about it. It is nice to know things always correct, however this doesn’t take us further for developments and it might stop our development of brain as well.

In my opinion, there is no knowledge that is more certain to us, because all of them should be certain to us in a combination. As I explained before, all of them have both advantages and disadvantages and no one is perfect. So, the best way to use them is to use right one or right ones in right time to get the most and accurate knowledge.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

• MEMORY (1971) – Don Locke
The Macmillan Press LTD.

• THE REPUBLIC (second edition-1987) – Plato
Penguin Books LTD.

• THE ENTERPRISE OF KNOWLEDGE – John Tomkinson

• PEOPLE AND PLACE – Lewis Holloway

We also take advantage of a post-processing application by doing reconstruction on the same plane using the system software to correct the positional pitfalls.

On the other hand, comparative studies showed that, in about 20 % of the cases with CPS, no correlation was found between the findings of electrophysiological tests and MRI.

There for, some other modalities, such as;

-Brain perfusion studies (Xenon-CT, SPECT, PET)
-Invasive monitorisation techniques (using with deep electrodes or strip and grid electrodes)
-Magnetic source imaging (MEG)

can be used, for more detailed evaluation of such problematic cases.

Etiologic factors, in development of the hippocampal sclerosis are not clearly identified yet. In the literature, various factors such as trauma (during the intrauterine period or during birth), developmental abnormalities and metabolic diseases are mentioned as being responsible for the development of sclerosis in the hippocampus.

However, regardless of what is meant with the factor of trauma, the histopathological changes observed in hippocampal sclerosis, strongly force us to think that, the basic factor of etiopathogenesis is “ischemia”. In the brain perfusion examinations using SPECT and/or PET, hypoperfusion was determined in mesial temporal cortex in 65-90 % of the CPS cases.

In addition to success in analyzing the perfusion, Xenon-CT, SPECT and PET, are less readily available, too expensive and/or cause some discomfort for the patient. All these methods require radiation exposure and are therefore of limited value for clinical use. None of these methods have ever been used routinely and, they can play an important role as a complementary method in the diagnosis of epilepsy but can never be used as a diagnostic tool alone in this field.

On the other hand, MRI has the capability of high anatomic and tissue contrast resolution and multiplanar imaging is an effective method for the localisation and characterization of the lesions. Besides all these advantages, technological developments reflected on MRI during the last few years, created hopes that, this method will be capable of providing functional data with high resolution anatomic images as well.

Several approaches for the non-invasive measurement of tissue perfusion rates using nuclear MR, both imaging (MRI) and spectroscopy (MRS) and other principles have been described to date, reflecting the fundamental importance of blood flow for the understanding of physiological and pathological processes. One category of nuclear MR methods relies on the intrinsic contrast between stationary (tissue) and mobile (blood) protons, such as the analysis of the amplitude decay in multi-echo experiments introduced by Mueller in 1986 and Duewell in 1990 or phase mapping methods by Young in 1987 and the intravoxel incoherent motion technique by LeBihan in 1988.

Recent investigations, also showed the possibility of the measurement of tissue perfusion rates using dynamic MRI techniques with fast intravenous injection of paramagnetic contrast medias such as Gadolinium chelates.

This technique was presented by

-Rosen BR, 1990
et al: Perfusion imaging with MR contrast agents. MR in Medicine,

-Rudin M, 1991
Sauter A: Noninvasive determination of regional cerebral blood flow in rats using dynamic MR imaging with Gd-DTPA. MR in Medicine, 1991

-Zigun JR, 1993
et al: Measuremeny of brain activity with bolus administration of contrast agent and gradient echo MR imaging. Radiology, 1993

-Brix G, 1994
et al: Quantitative assesment of tissue microcirculation by dynamic contrast-enhanced MR imaging. Advances in MRI Contrast, 1994

AND

-Forsting M, 1995
et al: MR-perfusion imaging in cerebrovascular disease: from experimental research to clinical application. Advances in MRI Contrast, 1995

who is one of the most important investigators researching the measurement techniques of brain perfusion using MRI and we will listen to his lecture in the next session and will hear detailed information about his studies about cases with stroke.

Gradient echo sequences such as FLASH (Fast low angle shot ) or SPGR (spoiled gradient recalled acquisition in steady state) with short acquisition times have sufficient temporal resolution to make them suitable for dynamic perfusion imaging.

If a short bolus of a paramagnetic contrast agent is injected intravenously, it is possible to track its passage through the brain as a transient loss of signal intensity on a series of dynamic images. In this technique, the contrast mechanism is not due to familiar T1-shortening. This alternative mechanism is based on the phenomenon of magnetic susceptibility. When injected into the bloodstream the contrast agent remains intravascular on its passage through the brain. T2* shortening effect arises from magnetic field perturbations, and extends over a greater distance than dipole-dipole T1-enhancement. This way, the resultant T2 shortening (visible as a signal loss) extends beyond the vessel into the surrounding tissue. Thus, wherever the blood supply is intact, the contrast agent becomes distributed within the capillary bed and signal intensity is lost in the surrounding parenchymal tissue. If the blood supply of a specific brain region is compromised, this is visible as delay or attenuation (dependent on the degree of reduction of blood flow) of susceptibility-induced signal loss.

These are all true for normal brain parenchyma when the blood-brain barrier is intact. Given an intact blood-brain barrier the contrast agent remains intravascular. But, if the blood-brain barrier brakes down regionally due to any reason, substantial tissue extraction of the agent itself occurs.

In light of all these data, to evaluate CPS cases quantitatively, a dynamic MR examination technique can be used for the detection of mesial temporal cortex perfusion comparatively in both sides.

For this purpose, selected cases with CPS, pre-diagnosed according to the findings of neurological examination and electrophysiological tests were examined in a preliminary study.

MR imaging was performed with a 1.5 T system MR unit using standard head coil. The parameters of routine MR examination protocol for the cases with CPS are as seen on the slide:

Sequences Plane TR/TE (mSec) Thickness (mm.) Matrix NEX Time
SE T1 (Scout) Sagittal 500/10 5 256×192 1 1.44
SE PD/T2 Transverse 2500/20-90 5 256×192 2 6.35
FSE T2 Transverse 5500/95 3 512×256 3 2.57
FSE T2 Coronal 5500/95 3 512×256 3 2.57
SE T1 Coronal 500/20 5 256×192 3 3.18

After the completion of the routine examination, a Spoiled Gradient Recalled Acquisition in the Steady State (SPGR) sequence was performed for detection of perfusion of the mesial temporal cortex. The parameters of this sequence were:

Sequences Plane TR./TE (mSec) FA (Degrees) Thickness (mm.) Matrix NEX Time (Sec.)
SPGR T1 Axial 33/2.9 60 7 256×192 2 14

The actual sampling time of this sequence was 14 seconds for three slices. For dynamic MR examination, an un-enhanced initial scan was obtained, then 0.2 mmol/Kg. Gadopentetate dimeglumine was given as a bolus injection over approximately 10 seconds, immediately after which scans were obtained at 5 seconds intervals for a period of 2 minutes. A late scan was also obtained on the fourth minute.

Quantitative measurement:

SI measurements were obtained from the dynamic contrast SPGR images with an ellipsoid region of interest used to quantify contrast enhancement of the hippocampal formation.

The region of interest was made as large as was feasible given the size and configuration of the hippocampal structure being measured.

The contrast enhancement was calculated using the formula

SIPost – SIPre
Mean SI Ratio =
SIPre

where SIPre and SIPost represent the signal intensities before and after the administration of contrast media respectively. To evaluate the changes in the enhancement pattern of the hippocampal formations, time-intensity curves of the SI ratio versus time after contrast administration were obtained.

The maximal value of the SI in each hippocampus was compared with the other side in each case. For statistical analysis, the relationship between the prediagnosis (which was done based on the findings of neurological examination and electrophysiological tests), the findings of interictal brain perfusion SPECT and the SI values were compared respectively.

24 cases (16 men and 8 women, ages ranging 16-43 years old) with CPS were evaluated with this protocol. 14 of the 24 cases had been prediagnosed as right temporal lobe origin CPS and 10 were of left temporal lobe origin.

In our routine examination protocol, hippocampal lesions (atrophy, sclerosis or both) were determined in 14 of the 24 cases and the rest 10 were evaluated as normal.

In 8 of these 14 cases with hippocampal pathology, dynamic MR examination showed high SI values in the pathological side. The brain perfusion SPECT findings showed hypo-perfusion in the pathological side of the 6 cases of these 8 cases.

In 6 of the 14 cases with hippocampal pathology, dynamic MR examination showed no differences but the brain perfusion SPECT showed hypo-perfusion in 3 of these 6 cases.

Brain perfusion SPECT also showed hypo-perfusion in 1 of the 10 cases who were diagnosed as normal with MRI findings.

As a result, contrast enhanced dynamic MR examination showed 75 % accuracy rate when compared with the findings of interictal brain perfusion SPECT.

Findings in this study support the statement that contrast enhanced dynamic MR examination is a technique that can be used in patients with CPS, to asses the mesial temporal cortex pathologies based on the objective data, with the purpose of detecting altered brain perfusion. We can expect, these applications may replace SPECT, Xenon-CT and PET in the investigation of cerebral haemodynamics in the near future.

But in California, 74 percent of our oil is used for transportation — cars, planes, trucks, buses and motorcycles. We’ll learn more about transportation energy in Chapter 13.
Natural Gas
Natural gas is also found in California. We use more than what is found in California. So, we also bring natural gas to California from other states and from Canada.
Natural gas is lighter than air. Natural gas is mostly made up of a gas called methane. Methane is a simple chemical compound that is made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms. It’s chemical formula is CH4. This gas is highly flammable.
Natural gas is usually found near petroleum underground. The natural gas is pumped from below ground and sent in large pipelines like the ones to the right.
Natural gas usually has no odor and you can’t see it. Before it is sent to the pipelines and storage tanks, it is mixed with a chemical that gives a strong odor. The odor smells almost like rotten eggs. The odor makes it easy to smell if there is a leak.
From the storage tanks natural gas is sent through underground pipes to your home to cook your food and heat your house. Natural gas is also sent to factories and to power plants to make electricity. We’ll learn more about the pipelines in California in Chapter 12.
Saving Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels take millions of years to make. We are using up the fuels that were made more than 65 million years ago in the time of the dinosaurs. Once they are gone they are gone.
So, it’s best to not waste fossil fuels. They are not renewable; they can’t really be made again.
We can save fossil fuels by conserving energy.
We’ll learn more about saving energy in
Here’s What We Learned
Fossil fuels were formed before and during the time of the dinosaurs when plants and animals died. Their decomposed remains gradually changed over the years to make coal, oil and natural gas.
Fossil fuels are usually found below ground and must be either dug out (like coal) or pumped from below the ground (like oil and natural gas).
California produces about one-half of the oil it uses. The rest comes from Alaska and other countries.
Oil is transported in huge pipelines and tanker ships to places where it is made into other products.
Many products, like plastic and fertilizer come from oil.
Natural gas is found near oil.
Natural gas is sent through a series of pipes until it comes to our homes, schools and businesses.
Fossil fuels are not renewable. They can’t be remade.

Adidas is a strong brand in athletic shoe business and the second largest company in the industry. The vision of company founder Adolf Dassler has long become reality, and his corporate philosophy the guiding principle for successor generations.

Adi Dassler’s aim was to provide every athlete with the best possible equipment. It began in 1920, when Adi Dassler made his first shoes using the few materials available after the First World War.

Today, the Adidas product range extends from basketball, soccer, fitness and training shoes to adventure and trail running shoes.

The Adidas name dates back to 1948, deriving from the first two syllables of Adi Dassler’s first and last name. One year later, Adi Dassler registered the Three Stripes as a trademark. After a period of almost 70 years, the Dassler Family withdrew from the company in 1989, and the enterprise was transformed into a corporation (“Aktiengesellschaft”).

Robert Louis-Dreyfus has been Chairman of the Executive Board since April 1993. He was the person  who initiated Adidas’ flotation on the stock market in November 1995.

In 1997 Adidas acquired the Salomon Group, and the company’s name changed to Adidas-Salomon AG. With the brands Adidas (athletic footwear, apparel and accessories), Salomon (skis, bindings, inline skates, adventure shoes, accessories), Taylor Made (golf clubs, balls and accessories), Mavic (cycling components) and Erima (sports apparel), Adidas-Salomon AG has a large portfolio of sports brands in the sporting goods industry, offering products for both summer and winter sports.

Adidas primarily subcontracts the manufacturing of its shoes to the Asian manufacturers. Currently there are more than 3,000 employees working at Adidas’ two main operational centers, at HQ in Herzogenaurach (Germany) and in Portland, Oregon (USA). Adidas-Salomon AG has around 13,000 employees worldwide. A team of designers, product developers and experts for biomechanics and material technology carries out research in Portland and at Adidas’ second technology center in Scheinfeld near Nuremberg.

In Scheinfeld; models, prototypes and made-to-measure performance products are also manufactured and tested. Scheinfield is the place that Adidas maintains the only sports shoe production facility still in existence in Germany. Here, special shoes for Olympic sports such as fencing, wrestling, weightlifting and bobsled are made.

Each season Adidas markets around 600 different sports shoes and 1,500 different Adidas apparel items. In 1999 Adidas sold more than 80 million pairs of shoes and over 150 million outfits worldwide. Products such as athletic footwear, sports apparel and sports equipment like bags and balls are today sold in over 160 countries. More than 50 subsidiaries, joint ventures and licensees guarantee marketplace presence for Adidas products around the world. Sales and distribution of Adidas products is grouped in five regions worldwide: Europe/Near East, Africa, North America, Asia/Pacific and Latin America. Today, Adidas is Europe’s biggest supplier of athletic footwear and sports apparel. The company holds about 13% of the World’s athletic footwear market and holds the second place after Nike. With Reebok and Nike, Adidas is one of the giants of the industry and after passing Reebok and starting to get an higher portion in the US market, Adidas is a nominee for the market leader position in the long-term.

Competitors

Nike: Nike is the largest company in the industry, in other words it is the market leader. Nike constitutes approximately 1/3 of the world athletic shoe market and approximately ½ of the US market. Nike constitutes great brand awareness on its large product mix, especially in basketball section. Although loosing a bit from its huge market share in recent years, it seems like Nike would handle the market leader position for more years.

Reebok: Reebok is the 3^rd largest firm in the industry, after Adidas. Until last few years Reebok had the second place in the industry in terms of sales, however, the company lost its place behind Adidas. Like Adidas and Nike, Reebok; as having a large product mix, can utilize economies of scale and economies of scope. With the two other industry giants, Reebok also differentiated in the industry by its high budget on advertising and R&D.

Fila: Fila is originally focused on tennis shoes. It has a market share about 5.6% and it comes just after the three industry giants.

New Balance: The company is Asian based and owned by Taiwan`s Pou Chen Corp. New Balance has opened a factory near Los Angeles last year. The company originally focuses on high quality running shoes. New Balance has turned the traditional trade route in the industry around and established its own plant in the US. In the middle term, the company seems to be a serious threat against the giants of the industry.[1]

Asics: Asics has a large product mix and it is very focused on performance shoes with high quality and technology. However, the company does not constitute the brand-awareness aspect as much as the largest ones in the industry and has only about 3% market share in the market.

Converse: It is one of the oldest companies in the industry. Converse focuses primarily on basketball section. The company holds about 3% market share, however, it has lost its old status and a bankruptcy seems very possible for the company in near future.

Stride Ride: The company focuses on low cost active wear portion of the market. Stride Ride primarily sells shoes for children, however, by using the Tommy Hilfilger line it is trying to enter the adult market.

Vans: This company focuses on outdoor activities like mountain biking and skateboarding. The customers of the company are mostly teens or young people about 20s, and also they are price sensitive. Vans has gained some market share as a result of the changing preferences of teens from traditional sports to outdoor sports.

Overview of the Last Period

Sales and Expenses

For the year 2000, Adidas-Salomon`s net sales increased by 9% to a record level of 5.8 billion. The increase of 13% to 2.4 billion in footwear division was the primary driver on this success. With respect to regions; the sales increases were like; Europe 5%, North America 4%, Asia 30% and Latin 34%. During the last year, Adidas sponsored important organizations like Summer Olympics in Sydney and the European Soccer Championship in Belgium. Those were some activities going with the Growth and Efficiency Program of Adidas for the year 2000. Those sponsorships had a significant effect on the increase of costs during the last year. Also the increases in taxes and minority interests and the weakening of Euro lead increase in expenditures. The expenditures increased by 12% during last year and this fact lead a decrease of 13% on the Income Before Taxes, however this was a symptom of the 2000 year strategy of the company and the decrease was consistent with the previous year’s expectations in the beginning of the year 2000.

Dividend Level

Last year was a period of consolidation and restructuring. During the process of reshaping the organizational strategies it is quite possible to lose profitability. However, Adidas managed to maintain the 0.92 per share despite the disadvantageous environment.

Adidas Athletes

Adidas athletes who showed up in summer Olympics, European soccer championship, US open, and World Series got high visibility during those global sporting events. //This is an important advantage for Adidas to prove the quality and performance of its products to especially performance sensitive customers. It gives confidence to the customers, as they know that they are buying the same quality with the top athletes.

Rewards

Adidas`s won prestigious degrees upon its commitment to top advertising, innovation and social and environmental issues. Those were; CLIO award as advertiser of the year, and being invited to Dow Jones sustainability Index and Fair Labor Association in recognition of the company’s strong social and environmental performance.

Goals Determined by the Corporate Management

*To get Adidas moving towards peak performance

*To improve product offerings worldwide

*To keep the positive momentum of 2000 in all brands and regions

*To reduce operating expenses (to manage strictly)

*To improve working capital management and debt levels

*To maintain margin strength (financial goal)

SITUATION ANALYSIS

Expenses-Currency Effects

Adidas is a German brand and Germany is one of the most important countries in European Economy. The expenditures are fixed to Euro, which is the currency of the European Union. However, it is always a threat for Adidas that the company’s expenses increase automatically as a response to Euro`s losing value against dollar. For instance, Adidas spent 19% more euros for every US dollar purchased in 2000 versus 1999. Through strong product and marketing management, the company was partly able to compensate that effect. The margin is targeted to be sustained between 41-43% range like achieved last year.

Operating expenses

Operating expenses are too high in Adidas and it is one of the most important issues for the corporate management to be dealt with. The main reason of the situation is the high level of hierarchy on the management levels. The changes by the Growth and Efficiency program aims to carry the organization to a more efficient structure.

Interest Expenses

Interest expenses for the last year were increased by 24%, as a result of both higher interest rates and higher net borrowings level. So, the high level of borrowings is one of the weaknesses of the company with respect to its financial standing. On the other hand, if Adidas cannot decrease the level of borrowing, the possible high interest tares would always be a threat for the company.

Income from Royalties

Income from royalties was up 24%, main driver here was sales by licensees especially in Europe and Asia. The increasing number of licensees is a strength for the company which would directly support the profits. Moreover, especially the emerging Asian market is an opportunity for Adidas to focus while trying to increase the number of licensees.

Working Capital

High working capital is another weakness of the company with respect to its targeted financial strength. Reducing the working capital is also a part of the Growth and Efficiency program of Adidas management. The attempts for it were like reducing the number of products and consolidating European warehouses and logistics to achieve needed improvements. Here, Europe seems to be the key point as also being the continent that Adidas is born and most powerful.

Inventory:

Increased by 24% last year. The increasing of inventory can be considered as a weakness for Adidas. The reasons for the increase were; pull-forward efforts to ensure on-time product delivery (esp. in Europe), increasing % of sales derived from at-once business, auto-replenishment programs and own retail in the USA and currency effects stemming from euros losing value against dollar.

On the other hand, quality of inventory is increasing by increase of 40% on goods on transit and lower provisioning for obsolescence. This is somewhat good for the company because goods on transit means that the products are sold and there risk of excess stock is decreased.

In 2001, the high US dollar will continue to negatively influence Adidas`s inventory figures. Right now Adidas is in a position, that even if our volumes remained perfectly flat, the value would be up significantly.. However, the ongoing situation shows that there this will be a sustainable reduction and Adidas has even more potential in 2002 and 2003.

Receivables-Level of borrowings-Debt Structure

Receivables increased by 17% with the increase on sales and Adidas is trying to continue with that. Level of borrowings could not be reduced enough because of the high working capital.

Adidas tries to improve the debt structure.. The aim here is to decrease the dependency on short-term bank borrowings, which is currently a disadvantage for the company.

With respect to earnings, targets are achieved despite the tougher macro-economic conditions and negative currency effects.

Backlogs:

North America is problem here. Backlogs are down by 21% on a currency neutral basis.  However, it is positive in athletic specialty retail. The improvements would be visible next year as a result of distribution oriented sales strategy.

Expectations for the Next Period as a Result of the Current Strategy

*Sales for Adidas in 2001 is expected to be up in all regions except North America.

*In Europe, backlog development is improving in most major markets and Adidas has started a variety of high visibility programs to promote the brand.

*One example here is the 1600 square meter Paris megastore, which opened in the middle of February on the Rue de Rivoli, one of Paris’ top shopping boulevards. This is the only major sporting goods store in Paris and it is obvious that that it will be a great showcase for Adidas products as well as an important marketing tool for the brand.

*Latin America and Asia is expected to continue to see the biggest increases with double-digit sales improvements in both regions.

*By reducing the working capital, controlling the capital expenditures and improving the earnings, Adidas aims to reduce its borrowings and strengthen its financial independence. Specifically, borrowings are going to be driven down by 100 to 150 million euros per annum starting in 2001.

North America

Adidas has already made great progress in getting the organization back in fighting shape on the region. Not being the largest company in the market yet, Adidas became fastest-growing sports brand in North America.[2]

Adidas aims to increase its share of the US footwear market to 20% by 2003, from the current 12-13-% as the new marketing focus starts to produce the benefits.[3]

To achieve the goal Adidas would need to provide the right products for its US customers and consumers to spur sales. The success of the company at this point somewhat depends  on how the North American economy and industry shape up over the year.

Direct financial results are likely to be seen in 2002, but the US section of the company aims to show immediate qualitative improvements in a better product mix; more focused marketing effort, exciting product flow and channeled sales approach.

One example to Adidas`s attack in the North America is;

New US Headquarters ‑ Adidas Village:

It will open early next year and will centralize all Adidas`s Portland-based employees into one place versus the seven locations. Thus, it is going to be a great opportunity for Adidas North America as communication, design and marketing efforts will be better coordinated in the region.

Targeted Distribution Channel Strategy:

In the past, Adidas`s success in North America was item driven. Two or three key items were the major drivers of sales in the market. As Adidas having a good track record for innovation, this generated lots of good business, but little sustainability. Adidas`s goal now is to build a platform for business that will really drive continued growth going forward. The key to this would be the targeted distribution channel strategy, where the company delivers the focused product offerings that provide retailers in each of these channels with products that meet the needs of their unique consumers.

The primary channels in the US are;

Athletic specialty and other specialty retail – This section constitutes about 35% of the market. This sector includes customers like Venator(Foot Locker and Champs), Footaction and Finish Line: This section is  at the top of Adidas`s priority list for 2001, currently the healthiest part of the athletic goods market and it is also the most important channel for Adidas`s most critical consumer group: urban youth. Buying decisions in this channel are based on cutting-edge product and exclusives where retailers can differentiate themselves from their competitors. For consumers, design is critical and large-scale marketing campaigns can have a big impact. This has always been a channel where Adidas was under-represented in recent years. Adidas is expanding its high-profile exclusive programs with these retailers from one in 2000 to five in 2001. Adidas would show more aggressive marketing efforts to build brand awareness for the brand and these new “cool” products. Athletic specialty will be the fastest growing part of the company’s US business this year.

However, last year Just For Feet went bankrupt and several stores were closed. That was a result of the over boom in the section during the past few years. Moreover, the changing trend in the market to the all-day sneakers from the performance products leads the decrease in the sales. Also, the inventories that the retailers hold increased substantially and the prices had to be cut. If this situation continues during the next period, Adidas`s efforts focusing on this section may lead a disaster for the company. In fact the shakeout of the retailers threatens mostly smaller vendors and according to Mr. Shhneider, the Finish Line executive, the industry is going to come back and being store in this section would bring a higher sales opportunity for Adidas.[4]

Sporting goods – This includes big box shops like the Sports Authority, Garts and Galyans and makes up about 20% of the US retail market today. It is another critical part of Adidas`s US business. This section is focused on delivering top performance products to athletes in their specific sports. As one could easily expect, this is an area where Adidas is strong and Adidas wants to strengthen and extend its strong market position in this channel. Adidas can manage this by providing unique, performance products and backing them with superior customer service be utilized to deliver the greatest benefits. This section is also expected to gain sales growth.

Family footwear and department stores – Family footwear and department stores are the other major category in US footwear market. These include stores like JC Penney, Kohls and Famous Footwear. This group also represents about 40% of the market. Most important factors for the consumers here are value for money and fashion. This section is the main distribution channel for mid-priced shoes where Adidas has traditionally been strong. Here is an area where price pressure has been strongest in pat periods. Adidas will be setting up special teams to create product specifically targeted to the value for money orientation of family footwear consumers. These retailers are an important part of the industry and have long been ignored by all the major players. The head of Adidas America has met all of them personally over the last several months and it would bring the company an opportunity to commit time and resources to ensure improvement here. This effort will not show tangible benefits until 2002. Adidas will not offer its original or exclusive products to these retailers. There is high demand for these products in this channel and it is strongly possible that the competitors may offer high-end products here to clear excess inventories. This isn’t what builds brand identity in fact, the company believes that it weakens it. To build its brand in the United States for good, simply can’t be done by putting all products in all channels. A short-term approach like this would improve Adidas`s sales in the short-term, however, it is not something that is healthy for the brand in the long-term.

Own retail – This is a young category, in which sporting goods suppliers operate their own concept shops, mega stores and factory outlets. This contributes less than 5% of industry sales but has two important advantages: building brand image and improving clearance margins. It is also an important channel for Adidas and all the competitors in the long-term development of business opportunities in the United States. However, the industry is not healthy today and it is not the company’s top priority for the next period.

Forever Sport Categories Targeting esp the US Market:

Soccer

Adidas is known throughout the world as the premiere soccer brand. This is something that is particularly true also in the US, where Adidas sells more than one million pairs of soccer shoes each year and have a market share of over 40%.

Tennis

Adidas is also the US market leader in terms of footwear for tennis. With high profile players like Martina Hingis, Marat Safin and Anna Kournikova, and top products this is an area where Adidas is committed to extending its market leadership.

Basketball

Adidas is making major headway in the basketball category. This is a category, which is currently dominated by the company’s major competitor, Nike. Adidas had double-digit increases in its US basketball sales, even excluding original products like the Superstar.  In 2001, Adidas expects to generate even greater improvements.

The catalyst for this growth has been Adidas`s most successful new basketball launch in more than a decade: The Kobe. This is Adidas`s highest priced shoe ever in the category at $125 and the company launched this shoe in five color ways over the last 4 months. This shoe was critical to Adidas`s success in the US market and the basketball category as Adidas proved that it could execute bringing a top product, at a top price, with great marketing to the market. As a result, Adidas will be releasing the white shoe again in the summer. And it will be following it up with a solid portfolio of basketball products in 2001.

Running and training

In both these areas, success is driven by design, technical innovation and, increasingly, exclusive programs. On the design front, products like the Oberon running shoe, and the Quicklite training shoe show that Adidas is expanding its traditional offering to focus on the fashion and design elements that are playing an increasingly important role in the sporting goods market

The other key issue for these two categories is technology and Adidas plans take a major step forward in 2002 with the introduction of two new footwear technologies. That means Adidas is definitely going to create some market excitement in 2001 when it starts introducing these footwear technologies to retailers, investors and journalists.

Evidence shows that both have potential to make a significant sales impact and really improve Adidas`s footwear offering in all markets, but especially in North America

Exclusives.

This is a product segment, which is critical to the US market, and Adidas believes that the trend will also play an increasingly large role in other markets in the future. Adidas will be expanding its exclusive offerings with top retailers from one project,

For the year 2001 Adidas aims to build a better, sharper Adidas in the US. This will be the base for the company’s superior financial performance in 2002 and beyond. Recent news about some major competitors clearing inventory are likely to make the US market even tougher than Adidas expected at the beginning of the year.

Other Key Points on SWOTs of Adidas

*Designers like Tommy Hilfilger, DKNY etc. that have started to produce sneakers, are getting increasing shares from the urban segment of the market. They use their strong brand image as leverage here.

*Because of the frequent changes in designs, retailers have to mark down prices to clear room for the next design. Consumers who realized this fact wait for a few weeks to capitalize this opportunity. Also they think the outlets are important alternatives to the retailers.

*According to the 1998 survey of SGMA, soccer has become the number 1 sporting activity with respect to athletic shoe sales. This also brings a competitive advantage to Adidas, as it is the market leader in that segment.

*Superstore chains, gaining more buying power in the industry. So it is not possible for Adidas as its largest competitor, Nike, to dictate all terms of a real. Adidas has to work harder to get big retail contacts.

*The superstores like Foot Locker and Champs are applying a private label program that targets brands like Adidas. As the superstores promote their brands directly to the customers and have their strong `brand names`, they can threaten Adidas`s and other brands` sales in case of using private labeling on shoes besides apparel.

*The newcomers like Vans and Airwalks has become popular among the teens. Moreover, major retailers do not want major brand s to have much power on them so they give more space on their shelves for the new brands. [5]

*The brands like Vans and Airwalks produce low cut suede sneakers in variety of colors. Those are cheap sneakers around 40$ and Adidas is also penetrating in this market. Sport sandal segment of the market is rising. Adidas has the number 1 selling sports sandal. However, large mail order catalogs like L.L.Bean and Eddie Bauer compete in the same segment.

*Nowadays Adidas is in a trademark fight with a company named C&A which uses two stripes on its logo that would infringe Adidas`s trademark and damage its brand. The Bavaria`s High Court has not decided on the issue yet, however, if Adidas loses this fight it might probably destruct its image and sales especially in Europe.[6]

*Tim Joyce, who was the president of global sales when he left Nike in 1999, became executive vice president of Adidas America. He might bring insight to Adidas, which it doesn’t have about sales. Also he can bring some top-secret knowledge about Nike’s strategies as being the toughest competitor of Adidas.[7]

* Nike`s shoe model Shox has entered the market. Shox is a high-tech shoe, which seems to be performance oriented and can be used for both running and basketball. The endorsement of the shoe was made by basketball star Vince Carter. At the same time, Adidas introduces Kobe Bryant basketball shoe, which is also a high-performance shoe and also emphasizes fashion. Both Adidas and Nike got help from automobile designers and Adidas`s Kobe shoe was particularly helped to create by Audis designers which is a car that found quickly popularity in the U.S.[8]

*Most Adidas goods are produced in Third World countries, particularly Asia with orders given to locally run factories. Adidas is accused of using child labor under 15(especially in the factories in Indonesia and Thailand) to work overtime, paying wages less than 60$ a month and forcing them to wrk under very poor conditions. This case is brought to the European Parliament last year. Whether Adidas claimed that they were not aware of those conditions in the third world country factories, which are owned by independent local organizations, the company has admitted some ignorance on the international labor standards. Moreover, the campaigners against Adidas in this case hope that the publicity surrounding the hearings on the working conditions in Adidas factories will force states to become involved in the regulatory process.[9]

*Adidas has to deal with the problem of fake Adidas products that are sold illegally in the market. Those fake goods do not only lead decrease in company revenues but also harm the brand image. A small example here can be the arresting of a fake Adidas importer in Japan, who imported 4.69million yen Adidas labeled products from Japan. It is also known that the arrested amount of those fake goods is only a small portion of the fake Adidas goods in the market.[10]

*Adidas is waiting for Tracy McGrady, the young player of Toronto Raptors to mature to be the new focus of Adidas`s basketball message after Kobe Bryant. Adidas is going to wait for a few years for that, because it is a lot of pressure for a young athlete to be the center of a marketing campaign and there have been some errors on Kobe Bryant who went directly to NBA after High School.[11]

*With more and more teens turning off traditional sports clothing and shoes (preferring more lifestyle wearing like FYBU, Old Navy etc. and so abandoning traditional mall-based sporting goods retailers), Adidas has had to rewrite the game plan for selling its new extreme sports lifestyle line by avoiding mall-based distribution outlets and playing down on its corporate culture.[12]

CRITIQUE

*Adidas`s one of the most significant problem seems to be the high operating expenses. This problem should be focused by Adidas management to increase the financial performance of the company. The most critical issue here is the problems stemming from the currency problem. Adidas has to find a way to avoid from its losses as a result of the possible devaluation of Euro against dollar. So, the expenses can be fixed to a certain currency rate which can be negotiated in the beginning of each period with Adidas`s suppliers and customers (retailers, department stores etc). That would give the company the opportunity to minimize risk stemming from the possible currency fluctuations and a significant decrease in expenses can be observed after then.

*Another reason for the high operating expenses in the past was the high costs of the sponsorship agreements. Adidas management should evaluate the benefits and losses of those sponsorship contracts very carefully. After the possible increases in sales as a result of those sponsorship programs (like summer Olympics) are examined, the expenses of these for Adidas should be calculated and those two should be compared. If the result does not proven to be a `gain`, the resources devoted to sponsorships can be shifted to other operations like R&D or direct advertising.

*Adidas also pays a lot of interest every year, which destructs the organizational profitability each term. Especially the high level of short tem borrowings is a crucial problem for the company. Instead of borrowing at a high level, the company should focus on minimizing the operating expenses and also the high sponsorship costs can be avoided. Moreover, the top management can use its bargaining power and can try to shift short-term borrowings to long-term at the minimum additional cost.

*Operating expenses are too high in Adidas as being one of the most important concerns of the corporate management and it should be decreased. For that purpose, Growth and Efficiency Program would be beneficial. According to the program, Adidas streamlined the organization and by doing so, too many duplications were eliminated. Global and US apparel activities were combined, footwear and apparel business units were united with their design teams. So a lot of unnecessary management levels were eliminated. It seems to be an opportunity for Adidas to increase the organizational efficiency in the upcoming years. Moreover, this opportunity would enable Adidas to utilize economies of scale much more.

*The high working capital should also be decreased to improve the financial strength of the company. There are a few ways for it. Consolidating the warehouses, which are not far away from each other, would help to decrease the working capital. On the other hand, eliminating inefficient product lines would be a critical attempt here. For determining the inefficient product lines, the regional managers should coordinate very efficiently with the corporate management to achieve the task effectively.

*Adidas should apply a customer-focused strategy, especially for athletic specialty retailers and other key accounts.  Account teams can be established with independent design and development resources. These teams may work directly with the key accounts to develop various account specific concepts and products that meet the needs of each retailer’s unique consumer profile. That would help Adidas to come over the excess inventory and clearance sales. Moreover, Adidas would gain competitive against its rivals in the retailers and sustain its strength at those points.

*Adidas has to follow very carefully the trend in the market to the all-day sneakers from the performance products. It is no longer enough for a shoe to simply perform its intended function; it also must make a statement about the wearer and their personal style. Only brands that fulfill both needs and who allow their products to live in the blurred area of sport and fashion will be successful in the future.[13]

The design teams should also focus on the fashion side of the Adidas products. Some shoes, which are as good as other performance shoes and also can be worn all-day should be developed to compete with the brands like Tommy Hilfilger which are trying to enter the sneaker market. Moreover, the innovations on multi-sports usable shoes should be focused on. An athlete who plays basketball, but also runs and weight trains would prefer one single shoe which fits for all types of exercises. It would be cheaper and more practical for the athlete. Also, it would be a great competitive advantage for Adidas that having that kind of a shoe against its rivals.

*Adidas should take more strict precautions against the fake Adidas products, which are illegally sold, in the market. A symbol, which is impossible to imitate, can be designed and put on every original Adidas shoe. Adidas should also emphasize that symbol on its advertisements and it should be easy for consumers to distinguish fake goods from the original ones. It would help Adidas to strengthen its brand image and to prevent losses stemming from the fake goods.

*Adidas should focus on benchmarking while developing strategies against its rivals, especially Nike. Adidas can utilize Tim Jones, who was one of the top managers of Nike in the past to learn more about the strategies of its most challenging rival. Especially in North America, Adidas`s success mostly depends on its success to gain sales from Nike’s potential customers. So, Adidas has to examine and learn very well how Nike established its current position and what are the critical points for sustaining that position.

*Adidas should also be careful on the child labor issue, which can threaten the company like other large sneaker brands in the near future. Adidas management should empower regional managers who are assigned in the locations of the manufacturing plans to check and ensure that working conditions in Adidas manufacturing plans corresponds with the international standards. This would enable Adidas to not conflict with business ethics and would strengthen company’s values.

*Adidas`s targeting sustainability instead of short-term growth is a very accurate decision of the corporate management. Especially, in the North America market; where the largest rival Nike is very strong and newcomers threaten the others, Adidas should be very careful while taking steps. Strengthening the brand image would be a result of companies giving high end products only to athletic specialty retailers but not the department stores. So, Adidas is going to be able to build brand loyalty much better in the long-term among its target customers. The new supply chain strategy of Adidas seems to be very beneficial in that respect.

*Credibility in soccer and tennis categories is the key and Adidas has the best portfolio of global teams and players, the leading performance products and the strongest heritage in those categories. Adidas should strengthen and expand its leadership here with new sales packages to extend its position in growing market segments.

*The macroeconomis conditions in the market is expected to be tough for some more years, so the advertising staretegy is a key in that point to come over the challenge. Adidas wants to reach earnings targets despite generally tougher markets and negative currency effects. For that purpose, the will focus its advertising on technology and performance rather than the three stripe logo to increase its sales.[14] Moreover, Adidas should also emphasize the design and fashionable aspect of its products to meet the changing demands in the market.

*The rewards that Adidas won last year like CLIO award as advertiser of the year, and being invited to Dow Jones sustainability Index and Fair Labor Association in recognition of the company’s strong social and environmental performance. Those rewards enable Adidas to become complex and global organization, which does not aim only profit but sensitive to the environment. However, those should be published and advertising more effectively to help promoting the brand and also for strengthening the corporate values.

*I can conclude that the future seems to be better than today for Adidas. If the strategies determined by the corporate management can be applied efficiently the goals are possible to accomplish. However, Adidas has to follow the trends in the market very carefully and it should develop strategies to beat not only the large rivals but also the newcomers. The top management should focus more on the financial strength of the company while not ignoring the design and innovation aspects of the business. Finally; it is a fact that, being the global market leader is a big challenge for Adidas but it is really possible in the long-term.

The Contracting Officer welcomed all attendees, introduced the GSO Ms. Melvern Favors, COR office representative Ms. Sevin Orak and Procurement and Contracting supervisor Meral Yalhi.

Discussion of the Solicitation Package

The scope of the life insurance solicitation was conveyed as well as highlighting the following sections of the solicitation:

1. The potential offerors must bid on the main solicitation package including the base and all option years prices. Any suggestions or requested changes to this package must be offered as an alternative.
2. All the submittals listed in the cover letter must be submitted. Any deviations from these submittals will result in the offer being considered as technically unacceptable.

Questions:

Answers to the attached questions asked prior to the conference was distributed along with amendment A-002 for revision of clause C.2.2. The attached questions and answers were discussed during the conference.

Conclusion

The Pre-Proposal Conference concluded and attendees were thanked for their presence and expression of interest in serving the U.S. Government.  The meeting was adjourned.

LIFE INSURANCE SOLICITATION (STU150-01-R-0822)

QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

1. How is the age that is listed in the solicitation’s attached employee lists calculated? These ages are the real ages of the individuals.
2. What is the previous benefit total given to the employees? Since there is a policy difference between the previous contract and this solicitation, this information is obsolete. The policy for benefit is based on the salary of the employee at the time of death whereas the previous contract was based on a fixed price benefit.
3. Will the beneficiary form be provided to the contractor? The contractor, Human resources office and the beneficiaries will keep copies. However, the employees are not obliged to fill out this form. For those employees who want their legal heirs to benefit, forms are not required to be filled out.
4. Although employees’ serious illnesses are listed in question no. 14, can we have the age of these employees? US Embassy does not have this information but will try to acquire it and inform the potential offerors.
5. 5. What can be done in situations where the Duns number can not be obtained? US Government requires the Duns number and the potential offeror should do everything possible to obtain this number including inquiring the web page. But if the Duns number is not obtained, it will not be a cause of elimination of their offer.
6. Since the Turkish Treasury Ministry has issued a premium table based on gender, can the gender and age of each employee be provided? Since compiling this list will take time, the USG can provide the total number of males and females. Male: 536, Female: 143.
7. Can the position of the employees be provided? The general breakdown of the US Embassy and its missions’ work force is as follows: half are guards, a quarter is blue-collar workers and the remaining quarter is white-collar employees.
8. Can the distribution of the employees by city be provided? The total number of employees according to city – Ankara, Istanbul, Izmir, and Adana – will be provided. Yes. : Ankara:67%, Istanbul: 29%, Adana: 4%
9. On page 31, clause L.4.3.5 of the solicitation, there is a mention that cash flow statements have to be provided. For which periods does these statements have to be provided? These statements should be provided for two consecutive 6 month periods.
10. According to Turkish Insurance law, insurance companies do not have to provide invoices. Can we provide receipts instead of invoices against payments? This point has to be checked with our Washington office and informed later. In retrospect: proforma invoice will be acceptable.
11. Have any of your employees been rejected under the past life insurance policy? No, all of our employees in the work force have been covered and our aim is to have all of them covered under the new contract.
12. If the employees leave the USG, does the government require a continuation of their insurance under an individual insurance policy? No, a continuation of insurance is not required; but in order to go with prevailing practice, providing such a chance for these individuals might be discussed for future option years.
13. How is the “Plan Administration” to be demonstrated or provided by the offerors? The potential offerors should provide a general description of how they plan to implement life insurance services to the USG by stating the period the benefit payment will be made, how they maintain adequate reserves to pay these benefits, their points of contact, etc.
14. Will the USG inform the changes in their employees or in their salaries? USG will be providing the additions/deletions in their employees immediately while providing salary changes on a monthly basis.
15. According to Turkish law, the customer’s premium payment must be made according to the age and gender of each individual. Since each policy agreement has to be submitted to the approval of the Turkish Treasury Ministry,  a list of  the premiums for each employee based on their age and salary has to be attached to the contract. The present price charts can be used to compare  offers by the USG; but the average premium rate can not be used for the actual premium calculations. The actual premium rate for any new employee has to be calculated according to their age, gender and salary if they do not meet the current premium scale. Will  this pose a problem for the USG? This issue will change the whole basis of the solicitation and we will have to seek our Washington office’s guidance on this issue. The solicitation due date will have to be extended.

B. NEW FUELS
1. THERMO – ELECTRICITY
If two different kinds of metals are combined closer to each other and heated in a closed circuit, an electrical current occurs in the circuit. This is also called as the semi-conductors.
This type of thermo-electrical cell is used as a small energy supply to meet the small demands.

2. SOLAR ENERGY
The sun is a very big and important energy resource. The energy radiated from the sun is 50.000 times of the energy used in the world.
In order to collect this energy, solar cells are designed by the use of semi-conductors.
Solar cells can produce very small amount of electricity which is 0.5 volt, 9 watts on a surface of 30 square cm. This means that very large surfaced solar cells should be produced in order to meet the energy demand, which is not so possible.
3. NUCLEAR ENERGY
When the nucleus of an atom is broken and separated into parts, a huge amount of heat is released which is used to produce electricity. This process is also called as the nuclear fission.
The heat is produced in nuclear reactors, as the separation of atomic nucleus of uranium and torium elements. This heat produces steam, which rotates the steam turbine and connected generator, thus electricity is produced.
Since uranium and especially torium elements are sufficiently available in the earth, nuclear energy can be named as an unlimited source.
But the risk of nuclear radiation present in the nuclear reactors, is very harmful to human and environmental health.
4. NUCLEAR FUSION
The heat in the sun is the hydrogen in the molten state. This is also called as the fusion.
The researchers are studying this process in order to obtain the similar conditions on the earth. The fuel to produce this heat is hydrogen isotopes. When these isotopes are fused, the amount of heat released will be greatly sufficient to meet the energy demand of the world and its fuel, hydrogen is very plenty in the world.
This method is still under research and not used as energy resource now.

JOINT STRIKE FIGHTER II

That the Pentagon decided not to opt(seçmek) for split(parçalı) procurement(edinim) to allow two complete aircraft design teams to stay in place in the US defence market is also more than noteworthy(dikkate değer). It appears to have been felt that Boeing has more than enough work with the F/A-18E/F and versions thereof(onun) to keep it going for at least a decade, and that with the growth of the UCAV market, this will then take over, keeping another aviation design house alive. But, at face value, this decision does break one of Augustine’s Laws which says that the ideal number of airframers in the US market is represented by the equation(denklem) “x=n-1″, where “n” is the number today. Strange to tell, once “n” is 2 or less, there are some interesting doctrinal(öğretisel) issues.

US COMPETITION

Although the Pentagon seems willing to see some form of monopoly – short term at least? – in the combat aircraft design and build market, with the sole(tek) source contract awarded to Lockheed Martin, it is less so with shipbuilding. The fact that General Dynamics’ bid(önemi) for Litton was opposed by the DoD, and a Northrop Grumman bid was supported and approved shows that there are still some areas where competition is deemed(kabul etmek) necessary. Though many might say that competition would be more desirable(çekici) in the expensive aircraft market rather than the shipbuilding market.

UK NAVAL ORDERS

“Never in so short a space of time has so much been ordered by such a small navy,” – OK, a bastardised(değerini düşürmek) version of Winston Churchill’s Battle of Britain speech but one which applies well to the UK’s 2001 naval orders. Having launched the Type 45 AAW cruiser in 2000, the decision to go firm(şirket) on the second batch(grup), with better pricing and certainty about what could and couldn’t be done, was quite amazing. Defence Analysis has spent much time trying to discover whether anyone else – even America – has ever gone contractually(anlaşmalı olarak) firm on so many major naval assets(mal).
The answer, apart from Project Bravo in Taiwan in the late 1980s-early 1990s, is no. The decision to move in this way ought to prove to be one of the greater drivers of cost downwards, if the lessons of the Type 23 frigate are anything to go by. It also ought to put major parts of the UK shipbuilding industry – in as good a position as needed to contemplate how, when, and if there will be a staged(tmesil etmek) rationalisation(yenileme) of the European shipbuilding industry. Yes, there is still further to go in the UK but in comparison to a country such as, say, France, matters look remarkably healthy.

FINMECCANICA

The Italian holding company has seen a mixed year with respect to its defence fortunes. In effect, the management has a mandate(emir) to sell off or arrange its defence assets so that the Italian state is less bothered(rahatsız etmek) by them. Of course, there will be a few “Do Not Cross” lines with respect to national politics but the brief is broad. 2001 was mixed in that its agreement with Westland over helicopters, Agusta Westland, started full trading and had a good year . Likewise (aynen), the last weeks of the year saw the Alenia Marconi Systems Anglo- Italian electronics company formally come into being. But of the aerospace business?
It had been “certain” that Alenia Aerospace would become part of a new company, the European Military Aerospace Company (EMAC), a joint venture(riskli iş) with EADS. This after Finmeccanica rejected BAES’s suit. But by the year’s end? All signs say that EMAC in its planned form is a dead duck. A new version might be resurrected(yeniden oluşturmak) but this is unlikely unless Finmeccanica realises that its hand is not as strong as it thought. The price asked of BAES was too great and the British company walked away – EADS seems to have done the same. A more realistic attitude(davranış) towards such mergers(iki şirketin birleşmesi) – and a realisation that proper(uygun) market values will rarely if ever give Finmeccanica even a third of any identifiable European merger – might help!

BOWMAN
Bowman is/was the single largest NATO communications programme for this decade, and possibly for the previous and next decades too. Winning such a deal, for a programme that is about the most integrated(tamamlamak) interlinked and interwoven(birlikte dokumak) communications and command programme, cannot be simply written off – the company that won has pretty much automatically gained a head start on other projects.
Bowman also would seem to confirm GD’s position and role as the world’s leading land systems company -a profitable(kazançlı) one too – with its positioning from ammunition to high-tech electronics. The loss by Thales is still reverberating (yankılanmak)through that company – how long it will take for the echoes to subside (yatışmak) remains to be seen. Also a good result for ITT, whose VHF radio won the selection too, giving it a heads-up in the market for the future too. Business such as Bowman has to be won, so rare is it – to the winners the spoils.

EADS & AMERICA

2001 marked the start of a concerted(birlikte yapılmış) campaign by French (Thales) and Franco-German (EADS) firms to win major footholds(ayak basacak sağlam yer) in the US defence market. Taken a little aback by the size of BAES’s footprint, both continental companies tried hard to create alliances which could rival (rekabet etmek) the British firm. Thales looked to link over ground based air defence with Raytheon, EADS strove(çalışmak) to gain(kazanmak) definitive tie-ups(engelleme) with Northrop Grumman on UAVs. However, the signs in many cases are that although there are some deals on the table these are of a limited nature, and are unlikely to be expanded(gelişmek) in the short or medium terms.
The problems are reported as legion. One is many senior Pentagon players are not worried about what minor defence participants(katılımcı) such as Germany would like to do in the US market. And such parties also have bad moods(aksilik) vis-à-vis(ile karşılaştırılınca) French participation in the US market. Reports say that attempts by senior members of both Thales and EADS to get “access” to relevant Pentagon levels have been rebuffed. The problem as well for European firms is that they are asking for US market access at a time when in many respects, they are closing their domestic markets.

THALES & THE UK

Oh dear, oh dear! How brightly the year started for Thales, as the UK’s newest, blondest-haired, bluesteyed boy. The dashing rival to stand up to the incumbent prime contractor of BAES, with a position that other companies could only dream of. To be fair, parts of the year were not at all bad – winning loads of EW work on the Type 45 doesn’t hurt, nor does winning work for sensors for the UK’s Watchkeeper UAV programme.
But the loss of Bowman, the subsequent(sonraki) further re-organisation and a similar feeling to that of BAES that there was a lack of direction in management abounded. Too many sources say that Thales (France) assumes that of right it must get a certain proportion of work from the UK, and if it doesn’t get it then it will choose to close whatever facilities it likes in the UK. This attitude – if it continues – can only hurt Thales by ruining what was a good –arguably(tartışmasız) excellent -playing hand in the UK, while destroying the value of its British investment.

EXPORT MARKETS – NOTABLE BREAKTHROUGHS IN 2001

TIGER

Eurocopter broke its duck with an order – confirmed before year’s end – for 22 new export version Tigers, armed with Hellfire missiles rather than the increasingly theoretical Trigat LR weapons. Defence Analysis cannot stress how much this contract is no small saviour(kurtarıcı) for the company, and is also important to the armed helicopter market as a whole. Australia is no pushover(çocuk oyuncağı) customer, and cannot be regarded as being in “Paris’s Pocket” – if Canberra has made such a decision (contract signed at the end of December), then it must have had good reasons to do so.
The implications for the wider attack – or simply armed – helicopter market are broad. As a comparison, if the US feels that in a country such as Afghanistan, awash (sürüklenmek) with twin 23mm cannon(büyük top) and hundreds if not thousands of shoulder-launched SAMs, that it can send mere(sırf, sadece) AH-1 Cobras, then what is the problem about buying a Tiger, with its modern vision systems and EW? Australia’s opting for Tiger has shown that if a massive armoured(zırhlı) threat is not evident, then why buy a Longbow Apache? Is such a system actually necessary in lesser threat environments? 2002 will see whether Tiger can make ground on that painfully won contest(mücadele) in Australia.

EH101

2001 was the breakthrough year. Although the results were not perfect for EH101, especially the Cormorant Search and Rescue version, victories can be assigned. Arguably, the single greatest win was the SAR and tactical transport contests in Denmark. Denmark is/was a member of the Nordic consortium(konsorsiyom, birlik)) trying to buy a single helicopter to meet all of its varied land and sea requirements. But as it became increasingly evident that this was impossible, then the chances for Cormorant as SAR improved – and the win in Denmark apparently confirms that any existing S-61 operator will want to go for an equivalent-sized(eşdeğer çapta) helicopter.
But winning the troop(grup) transport contest also broke the duck for the EH101, starting to kill the rumour that it is too big for TTH roles. What happens for Norway is now of interest – the SAR model is now being run by the Justice Department which is much less convinced by the merits(değer) of either the NH90 or the S92. Portugal also went for the Cormorant, another good result what with fierce last minute lobbying(değişiklik yapmak) from Sikorsky and S92. Cormorant(karabatak) ultimately won because the air force wanted it, not because beancounters said otherwise, a breakthrough(ani saldırı) for any country!

JAS-39 GRIPEN

The Year of the Gripen would be 2001. Two contracts were won – well, as far as they could be under the circumstances – and one was seemingly guaranteed. The first last. The major South African defence deals of 2000 have been embroiled(karışmak) in Parliament with accusations(şuçlama) of bribery(rüşvet), corruption(kötüleştirme) and so on. But a report in the last quarter of 2001 put to rest all the main allegations, allowing the deal to go ahead, the Gripen’s first major such with 28 ordered.
Then Hungary decided to lease 14 (twelve single-seat, two twin-seat) in a deal signed in December worth a few hundred million dollars over a decade starting in 2004. And the de facto collapse of the contest in the Czech Republic – Lockheed Martin, Dassault and Boeing all pulled out because of contractual(sözleşmeli) issues which were deemed(zannetmek) way too arduous(güç) – left the field clear for single source negotiations between Prague and BAES/Saab for up to a few dozen aircraft.
It cannot be over-stressed how important these deals are, showing that the JAS-39 Gripen can win not just in one country but several. Dare one say that after two major Central European wins, that countries such as Poland – which was seen as a shoo-in for US offerings but which held back from an actual order – might see advantages in creating a Central European Gripen User Group, pooling (birleştirmek) maintenance and training?
Might one also think that, as a humorous aside, that Vienna might like to recreate the Austro-Hungarian Air Force by selecting the JAS-39 if it goes ahead with an order in late 2002-early 2003? Chuck in Slovenia too, possibly even Switzerland, for a recce bird, and JAS-39 could fulfil the dream (mission?) of becoming the next-generation F-16. Whatever, 2001 was an excellent year for the aircraft and its marketing team.

LAFAYETTE

Another win for the pretty but often unfancied(sıradan) French runner. Whatever its technical merits, it satisfied the Singapore Navy enough to see that service order six in a slightly smaller version than is the norm for its new air defence frigate(fırkateyn) programme. Although the weapons fit is not fully decided – and there may be yet problems with fitting US weapons to a French platform – the programme looks set to proceed(ilerlemek). The Lafayette design has shown itself to be favoured by many around the world, not least in Saudi Arabia and Taiwan, and has given the German Meko design a serious run for its money. Might we see further such sales in 2002?

In relation  to an organization, the “inputs” include people, materials, informations, and finance. These inputs are organized and activated so as to convert human skills and row materials into products, services and other outputs  which are discharged into the environment..

A system occurs some functions which is called “sub-systems” for example, when we handle a business as a system, marketing, personel, financial, production departments are called sub-systems.

The boundiries between sub-systems are called “interfaces”. These are the sensitive internal boundiries contained within the total system , and they will be referred to again shortly

In such system it is also easy to identiy boundiries between the total system and its sub-systems. For example; the gearbox of a motor vehicle is a clearly recognazible sub-unit of the whole vehicle. Other example; cardio-vascular system in the human bosy is a recognazible sub-system of the whole body.

The boundaries of an organizations are not visible, for the boundaries of a social system are based on relationship and not on things. Thus while certain factual elements, such as “physical location” ,do have some impact on an organization’s boundaries, it is results of management where the organizations ends and the environment begins.

Boundaries managemet is becoming increasingly recognized that boundary management is of vital impportance to the effective of these in managerial and supervisory roles.

Boundary management means establishing and maintaining effective  relationship with colleagues working  in neighboring sub-systems.

Organizations are always open system that means they do interact to their environment . but some sub-system of the organizations tend to “closed system” for example; production sub-system, accounting sub-systems because they are relatively self-contained and are effected in ways which are usually predictable. But these tendency are not 100 % . for example 40 % of the production sub-system tend to open system on the other hand the remainder tend to closed system.

KATZ & KAHN

One of the most useful attempts to summarize the copmlexities of organizations as “open system” has been that of two American academics; Katz and Kahn

They identified the common characteristics of such open systems as follows

A) Importation of energey and stimulation; People and material

B) Conversion; processing of materials, organizing of work activities

C) Output; products or services

D) Cyclic Nature; the returns from marketing the output enable further inputs to be made to complete the cyclic of production.

E) Negative Entropy; entropy explains the tendenc of the system. According to this concept, if a system has some disturbance, at the and of the  a long time some activities tends to be over or stopping activities. Entropy exist all the system.

Open system may prevent the effects of tendency, because open systems do interact by taking information, energy and materials from their environment. Because of this, stopping and removing the effects of entropy in an open system is called “negative entropy”  i.e: firms building up their reserves..

F ) Feedback; we can explain feedback as a sample. 0 (zero) envanter level of a big story indicate to more demand of consumer and increasing the quantity of reversed standarts.

We can give an other example; a manager who determined own company profit as a 20 % of a specific date. But the end of the specific time the company profit over the 20 % in this case , the manager don’t want to edit from their officers for these differences of profit.

G) Steady State; this refers to the balance to be maintained between inputs flowing in from the external environment and the correspoding outpus returning  to it. An organizational in steady state is not static, but in a dynamic form of equilibrium..

H) Differentation; the tendency to greater specializations of functions and multiplicity of roles.

J) Equifinality; this word was coined by an early systems theorist Von Bertalanffy,1960. It means that the open system do not have to achieve their goal in one particular way. Similar ends can be achieved by different pats and from adifferent starting paint

The revised model shows us the consegvences of the outputs as information and results.the information can take many forms example: sales volumes ,nev onders,market share,customer complaints.

The information can be applied to control inputs and conversion processes as appropriate.the rasults are the revenves and profrts  which are fed back into . The organization to provide further inputs , and so ensure the survival and growth of the system.

APPROACH SYSTEM TO MANAGEMENT

System approach  to management assist to manager or administrator, the solving problems and complex system of organizations.

The fundamental idea of system approach in organizations based on members of organizations or relationship among sub-systems. This approach begins determining the targets and condense to focal point as the designing of items of the whole. The reasons of this “cybernetic system”

The term “cybernetics” in this context means the study of control and communication in the animal and machine. Cybernetics was made famous by Novert Wiener in the late 1940’ s, but is stil very much a developing science. The essence of a cybernetic system is self-regulation on the basis of feedback information to disclose a shortfall in performence against standarts and to indicate corrective action.

Shortly, cybernrtic, the whole greater than other component at totally of the whole. If every items of compoment move a single, productivity will decrase.

WHAT ARE THE  REASONS OF SYSTEM APPROACH TO MANAGAMENT

There are two main reason for system approach to management

1) Organizational structure becoming more complicated is the first reason. These complications is reasoned by following

• Development in technology
• Arising relationship between organizations and environment
• Decrasing the differantation of productions and existence of marketing

2) New developments in the management area is second reason. These development are following

• Informations- feedback theory
• Advanced decision-making process
• Developments of the techniques of management science
• The machines of the electronic information and data

REFERENCES

Shackelford, James F. (1996). Introduction to Materials Science for Engineers.
(4th ed.) New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents.
Aseismic Design of Underground Structures” , C.M. St John and T.F.Zahrah

THE QUESTIONNAIRE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

A questionnaire will ordinarily go through a series of drafts before it is in acceptable final form. In fact,even before the first question is constructed,the researcher mentally reviews alternative question formats to decide which ones are best suited to the survey’s respondents and circumstances.As the questionnaire begins to take shape the researcher continually evaluates each question and its response options for face validity.Changes are made , and the question’s wording is reevaluated to make sure that it is asking what the researcher intends.Also the researcher strives to minimize question bias,defined as the ability of a question’s wording or format to influence respondents answers.

The client is give the opportunity to comment on the questionnaire during the client approal step in which the client reviews the questionnaire and agrees that it covers all of the appropriate issues.This step is essential,and some research companies require the client to sing or initial a copy of the questionnaire as verification of approval. There are several good reasons for client aproval of a propesed questionnaire.

STEP İN THE QUESTİONNAİRE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

DEVELOPING QUESTIONS

Developing a question’s precise wording is not easy.We have claimed that developing questions for a questionnaire is an art.But just as there is good art and bad art, there are good questions and bad questions. In developing any question, the ultimate goal is to devise a way to tap the person’s true response without influencing him or her either overtly or subtly.Compounding this peoblem is the fact that the researcher will have only one chance to accomplish this goal,so the wording of each question is critical.

Example of Table 11.1

Always Another dead giveaway word
Do you always observe traffic signs?
Is your boss always friendly?

America Be careful of two things with words like these.First,they may be
American Heavily loaded emotional concepts. Answer may be given in terms
of patriotism instead of the issue at hand.Second, these are very
indefinite words referring to whole continents or parts of continents,
to Native Americans,or even to that sometimes misused phrase-100%
Americans.

THE FİVE SHOULDS OF QUESTİON WORDİNG

There are five ‘shoulds’ of question wording: 1- The queation should be focused on a single issue or topic ; 2- The question should be brief ; 3-The question should be interpreted the same way by all respondents; 4- The question should use the respondent’s core vocabulary;and 5- The question should be a grammatically simple sentence if possible.A discussion of these ‘shoulds’ follows.

The Question should Be Focused on a Single Issue or Topic

The researcher must stay focused on the specific issue or topic .For example,take question,What type of hotel do you usually stay in when on a trip?
Sharply focused questions are desirable.

The Question Should Be Brief
Unnecessary and redundant words should always be eliminated, regardless of the data collection mode.Brief questions are desirable

The Question Should Be Interpreted the Same Way by All Respondents.

Questions should be clear.
All respondents should ‘see’ the question identically.For example the question, “How many children do you have?” might be interpreted in various ways.One respondent might think of only those children living at home ,whereas another might include children from a previous marriage.A better question is , ”How many children under the age of 18 live with you in your home?”

The Question Should Use the Respondent’s Core Vocabulary

The question should be worded in respondets eveyday vocabulary.
The core vocabulary is the everyday language respondents use to converse with others like themselves,but it does not include slang or jargon.Obviously,if a question includes words with which some but not all respondent are familiar,these words,are a potential source of error for those who do not interpret them properly.

The Question Should Be a Grammatically Simple Sentence if Possible

A simple sentence is preferred because it has only a single subject and predicate whereas compound and complex sentences are busy with multiple subjects,predicates,objects,and complements.The more complex th e sentence,the greater the potential for respondent error.If you were looking for an automobile that would be used by the head of your household who is primarily responsible for driving your children to and from school, music lessons,and friends, houses, how much would you and your spouse discuss the safety features of one of the cars you took for a test driver?A simple approach is , “Would you and your spouse discuss the safety features of a family car?” followed by (if yes),”Would you discuss safety’very little,’some,’a good deal,’or ‘to a great extent?”

The Question Should Not Assume Criteria That Are Not Obvious

“How important do you think it is for a Circle K convenience store to have a well-lighted parking lot?” has the potential for respondents to think in terms of the needs of others rather than their own.

The Question should Not Use a Specific Example to Represent a General Case

“Did you notice any newspaper,television,radio or mailed advertising for Sears
in the last week”See the word “like” in Table 11.1

The Question Should Not Ask the Respondent to Recall Specifics
When only Generalities Will Be Remembered

Questions that ask the respondent to recall specifics when only generalities will be remembered are undesirable. “The last time you bought gasoline at a convenience store, do you recall it costing more, less ,or about the same Per gallon as at a gasoline station?”

The Question Should Not require the Respondent to Guess a Generalization

Question that make respondents guess are undesirable.For instance,with the fresh fish example,the question might be posed as, “In the last five times you bought fresh fish at the supermarket, how many times did you worry about its freshness?”For the camera question, it would be advantageous to use a likelihood scale:”Would you be ‘unlikely’,’somewhat likely,’ or ‘extremely likely’ to ask the clerk about the camera’s warranty?”

The Question should Not Ask for Details That cannot Be Related

Question asking respondets to recall minor details are undesirable. Do you recall comparing the price of Sunbeam with another brand of bread before deciding to buy Sunbeam?”

The Question Should Not Use Words That Overstate the Condition

Question with overstatement in them are undesirable.”How much do you think you would pay a pair of sunglasses that will protect your eyes from the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays,which are known to cause blindness?”

The Question Should Not Have Ambiguous Wording

Ambiguous question are undesirable.For example,a Society for the prevention of Cruelty to Animals survey may ask,”When your puppy has an accident, do you discipline it?”There are two ambiguous words in this question.An “accident” could mean urinating on the floor, or spilling water out of the feeding dish, or any number of different mishaps.The definition of “discipline” is vague, and as you can imagine, the nature and severity of canine discipline can vary greatly.

The Question Should Not Be “Double-Barreled”

A”double-barreled” question is really two different questions posed in one question.With two questions posed together,it is difficult for a respondent to answer either one directly.

The Question Should Not Lead the Respondent to a Particular Answer

A leading question is worded in such a way as to give the respondent a clue as to how to answer.Therefore , they bias responses.Consider the question used vy Alreck and Settle to illustrate a leading question:”Don’t you see some danger in the new policy?”

The Question Should Not Have “Loaded” Wording or Phrasing

Leading questions direct the respondent to answer in a predetermined way.By contrast,a loaded question is more subtle. Identifying this type of bias in a question requires more judgment, because a loaded question has buring in its wording elements that allude to universal beliefs or rules of behavior.

QUESTIONNAIRE ORGANIZATION

The introduction serves five function:

1. Identification of the surveyor/sponsor
2. Purpose of the survey
3. Explanation of respondent selection
4. Requrest for participation/provide incentive
5. Screening of respondent

If the introduction is written to accompany a mail survey, it is normally referred to as a cover letter.If the introduction is to be verbally presented to a potential respondent,as in the case of a personal interview,it may be referred to as the opening comments.”With an undisquised survey,the sponsoring company is identified but with a disguised survey,the sponsor’s name is not divulged to respondents.The choice of which approach to take rests with the survey’s objectives or with the researcher and client who agree whether disclosure of the sponsor’s name or true intent can in some way influence respondents answers.

The purpose of the survey should be described clearly and simply.
Respondents should be told how they were selected.
Ask for participation.
Incentives may be used to encourage participation.
The first is anonymity,in which the respondent is assured that neither the respondent’s name nor any identifying designation will be associated with his or her responses.The second method is confidentiality,which means that the respondent’s name is known by the researcher, but it is not divulged to a third party,namely the client.Anonymous surveys are most appropriate in data collection modes where the respondents responds directly on the questionnaire.

TYPICAL QUESTION SEQUENCE

A questionnaire starts out with screenning and warm-up questions.
Screening questions, which will determine whether the potential respondent qualities to participate in the survey based on certain selection criteria that the researcher has deemed essential. For instance if a mall-intercept approach is used in a survey being conducted form Arm & Hammer baking soda,screening questions might bu used to qualify respondents who buy the cooking ingredients for their family,do most of the cooking,and make a baked food item at least once a month.Of course,not all surveys have screening questions.

The Location of Question s on a questionnaire Is Logical

QUESTİONNAIRE ORGANIZATION

Question Type Question Location Examples Rationale

Screens fist question asked have you shopped at the Used to select the respondent types
Gap in the past month? Desired by the researcher to be in
the survey

Warm-ups Immediately after any How often do you go Easy to answer ;shows respondent
Screens shopping? that survey is easy to complete;
generation interst
“On what days of week
do you usually shop?

Transitions Prior to major sections “Now,for the next few Notifiles respondents that the
(statement) of questions or changes questions,I want to ask subject or format of the following
in question format about your family’s TV questions will change.
vewing habits.”

“Next, I am going to read
Several, statements, and
After each, I want you
to tell me if you agree or
disagree with this statement.”

Complicated and Middle of the “Rate each of the following Respondent has committed
difficult to questionnaire;close 10 stores on the friendliness himself or herself to completing
answer questions to the end of their sales people on a scale the questionnaire;can see (or is
of 1 to 7” told) that there are not many
questions left
“How likely are you to purchase
each of the following items in the
next three months?

Classification and last section “What is the highest level of Questions that are
Demographic education you have attined? “personal”and possibly
Questions offensive are placed at
the end of the question-
naire

Warm-ups are simple and easy-to answer questions that may not pertain to the research objectives.These questions really perform the task of heightening the respondent’s interest while making the person feel that the questions can be answered easily and quickly.Here,a warm-up may be, ‘’have you baked anything in the past month?’’
Questionnaire flow must move the respondent smoothly through the questions.
Transitions are typically statements made to let the respondent know that changes in question topic or format are forthcoming.A statement such as ‘’Now,I would like to ask you a few questions about your family’s TV viewing habits’’is an example of a transition statement.
“Skip” questions to determine which question or set of questions will be asked next.Using our Arm&Hammer baking soda example, a transition question may be, ‘’When you bake a cake, do you usually do it from scratch or do you use a box mix?”
Complicated and/or difficult-to answer questions are best placed deep in the questionnaire.
Demographic and other classification questions are traditionally placed at the end of the questionnaire.
The last, section of questionnaire is reserved for classification questions.The word”classification” is used because these questions are normally used to classify respondents into various groups for purposes of analysis.

Approaches to Question Flow

The funnel approach uses a wide to-narrow or general to specific flow of questions that places inquiries at the beginning of a topic on the questionnaire that are general in nature,and those requiring more specific and detailed responses later on. The work approach is employed when the researcher realizes that respondents will need to apply mental effort to a group of questions.
Sometimes the objectives define the sections, but in other instances,question formats are used for this demarcation.For example,with our Arm&Hammer survey,we could have separate sections of questions for baking cakes,baking pies,baking cookies,baking from scratch ,baking with box mixes,and so forth.

PRECODING THE QUESTİONNAIRE

A final task in questionnaire design is precoding questions, which is the placement of numbers on the questionnaire to facilitate data entry after the survey has been conducted.Precodes are included as long as they are not confusing to respondents or interviewers.

The response categories could be: (1) plain white boxer style, (2) colored boxer style, (3) colored brief style, (4) plain white brief style, and (5) colored bikini style. You should note that if the respondent was instructed to select only style, the precodes would be 1,2,3,4 and 5 ; but because more than one response category can be checked there are numerous different possible combinations (1 and 2 ; 1 and 3 ; 1, 2 and 3; and so on.

COMPUTER-ASSITED QUESTİONNAIRE DESIGN
Features of computer-Assisted Questionnaire Design Systems

There are several significant advantages of computer-assisted questionnaire design: They are easier,faster, and “friendlier” than using a word processor.In fact research companies that do a great deal of survey research have found the cost of buying these programs well worth their expense when spread across several marketing research projects.

Conversation Feature

The typical questionnaire design program will querly the designer on, for example, type of question, number of response categories, whether multiple responses are permitted, if skips are to be used,and how responses are to be coded.

Creation of Data Files

Computer –assisted questionnaire design may provide for a direct path from responses to a computer file for all respondents’ answers.With CATI systems that we described in chapter 9, the questionnaire is administered by the telephone interviewer who is prompted for each question by the computer screen, and as the respondent’s answers are keystroked by the interviewer, they are immediately written to a data file.

Data Analysis and Reports

Many of the software programs for questionnaire design also have provisions for data analysis, graphic presentation, and report formats of results.Using the previous question on fast-food eating habits.

PERFORMING THE PRETEST OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE

A pretest involves conducting a dry run of the survey on a small, representative set of respondents in order to reveal questionnaire errrors before the survey is launched.

DESIGNING OBSERVATION FORMS

Build-Up and Break-Down Approaches
Your work in creating this categorization system might be referred to as the “build-up” approach in which you must perform the observations first,and then the categolies for reporting them are built on these observations.An opposite method might be called the “break-down” approach in wich the categories are created before the observer goes into the field,and they are provided on an observation record form.This approach requires the researcher to think through and map out all of the revelant behaviors before the actual observation phase is undertaken.

Chapter Two
How Tom and the Prince changed places.

So Tom went to the gate of the Palace and looked through it. There were two soldiers standing there, one on each side of the gate. They would not let Tom come close. He saw a great many fine gentlemen and ladies coming and going inside; but he did not see the Prince. He went to the gate day after day. Then one day he saw a boy coming out of the door of the Palace. The boy came quite near the gate. Tom ran to the gate so as to see him better. ‘I want to see the Prince!’ he cried.
One of the soldiers said: ‘Keep back!’ and he hit Tom. He hit him so hard that Tom fell down on the ground.
The Prince saw this, and he was angry.
‘Why did you hit the poor boy?’ he said. ‘Open the gate, and bring him in.’
‘He’s only a poor beggar boy,’ said the soldier.
‘The King, my father, is king of all the people, rich and poor,’ said Prince Edward. ‘Bringe the boy in.’

So the soldier opened the gate and brought Tom in. ‘Come with me,’ said the Prince. ‘Tell me who you are and why you want to see me so much. You have come to the gate day after day. I have seen you from my window.’
Then the Prince led Tom to a room to a room inside the Palace. He called a servant. ‘Bring food,’ he said.
So the servant brought food and put it on the table. Tom had never eaten such nice food before.
‘Now,’ said the Prince, ‘tell me about yourself. What’s your name? Where do you live?’
‘I live with my father and mother and grandmother and my two sisters in a room in Pudding Lane.’
‘In one room?’ said the Prince. ‘Do you all live in one room?’
‘Yes,’ said Tom.
‘There are hundreds of rooms in this palace. Why do you all live in one room?’
‘We’re very poor.’ said Tom. ‘My father sends me out to beg for money. If don’t bring back enough money, he beats me.’
‘Your father beats you!’ cried the Prince. ‘I shall send my soldiers to beat him!’
‘No, no!’ said Tom. ‘That would make my mother and my sister unhappy.’

‘I have three sisters,’ said the Prince. ‘Lady Elizabeth, and Lady Jane and Lady Mary. Lady Elizabeth is very wise; Lady Jane reads books and is very kind. But I don’t like Lady Mary: she never laughs or plays with me. Do you play with other boys?’
‘Yes, of course I do!’
‘I don’t. What do you play?’
‘I play with a ball, and I play by the river, and I swim. And sometimes I play at being a prince.’
‘I would like to play at being a poor boy like you, and play by the river, and swim. Let’s change clothes. Just for a little time you shall be the prince and I’ll be the poor beggar boy. Come!’

The Prince began to take off his fine clothes, and Tom took off his old clothes and put on the clothes of the Prince.
Tom looked at the Prince as he stood there dressed in Tom’s clothes. He had seen someone very like him before. Where had he seen him? The Prince was very like…
‘Come and look here!’ cried the Prince. ‘Come and look at us in the glass!’
They were just like each other. The Prince looked just like Tom, now that he was dressed in the beggar boy’s clothes; and Tom looked just like the Prince.
‘Stay here till I come back,’ said the Prince. He quickly took up a small round heavy thing from the table and put it in a safe place as he ran out of the door.
Tom stood there alone.

Chapter Three
How the Prince came to Tom Canty’s home

The Prince came to the gate of the Palace.
‘Ho!’ he ordered, ‘open the gate, you men! Quickly!’
The soldiers opened the gates. Then, as Edward passed through, one of them hit him on the head. ‘That’s not the way to speak to one of the King’s soldiers!’
The people standing outside the gate laughed as Edward fell on the ground. He got up, and looked at the soldier.
‘I am the Prince! You shall be killed for that! And you, you fools, you laughed!’
The people laughed again, more than before. Then one of them said: ‘Bow to the Prince! Hats off to our Prince! Make way for the Prince!’ And they laughed as he passed through them.
‘He’s mad,’ said the other.

Edward went along the street. The people did not follow him: they were afraid of mad people. Perhaps the boy might be dangerous, they thought.
He walked on and on. He did not know where he was: Prince Edward did not often go out into the streets of London. He was not wearing shoes: Tom Canty did not have shoes, but his feet were hard. Prince Edward’s feet were soon cut by the stones and covered with blood. He was very tired and he needed food.
‘Oh, where can I find rest and food?’ he cried. ‘Where can I find someone who will lead me back to the Palace?’
A fine gentleman passed by on a horse and Edward called out to him: ‘Sir! I am the Prince. I ask you to take me back to the Palace.’ But the gentleman did not hear what he said; he thought that he was only a beggar boy asking for money, and he rode on.

At last Edward came to a big building that he knew. ‘Ah!’ he cried. ‘That’s Christ’s Hospital. My father the King gave that building as a school for poor boys. I can get help there.’
A lot of boys were playing in front of the building. Edward called one of them: ‘Ho! boy!’ he said. ‘Go to your teacher and tell him to come here. Tell him that Prince Edward orders him to come.’
The boy laughed.
‘Do as you are told!’ Edward said, and he hit the boy.
The boy called out to the others: ‘Here’s a mad boy. His head’s hot! Let’s throw him into the water!’
There or four of them took Edward and threw him into some dirty water and laughed as he climbed out on the other side.

Night was coming on. ‘It’s late,’ thought Edward. ‘I must find some place where I can sleep tonight. Then I’ll go back to the Palace tomorrow. I must go to Tom’s house and sleep there… Pudding Lane. That’s where he lives.’
He went on and on. The sky was red with evenning and lights began to shine in the windows of the houses. Then a heavy hand came out of the darkness and took Edward by the arm.
‘What are you doing out so late at night?… Hey? … Tom Canty, can’t you answer your father? What money have you got for me?’
‘Oh!’ cried Edward. ‘Are you his father?’
‘His father?-I’m your father!’
‘No! No!’ cried Edward. ‘ I’m the Prince. Your son is in Westminster Palace. Take me there and bring him home.’
John Canty looked at the boy. ‘Mad!’ he said. ‘Quite mad!’
He took the Prince’s arm and pulled him along. He was a very strong man. ‘Whether you are mad or not,’ he said, ‘you must come home with me, and you shall go out all day tomorrow and bring the money you should have got today.’

Chapter Four
What happened to Tom in the palace

Tom was alone in the Prince’s room in Westminster Palace.
He stood in front of the big glass on the wall and looked at his beatiful clothes. Then he walked up and down, still thinking how beatiful he looked. He put his hand on the sword at his side and drew it out. He played at fighting some unseen person with it. Then he sat down and thought: ‘What a story I’ll have to tell to my sisters when I get home!’

A bell sounded. One whole hour had passed: the Prince was a long time away. ‘When will he come back?’ Tom wondered.
He walked round the room looking at all the beatiful things in it-the finely-made chairs and tables, and the pictures on the walls. There were pictures of kings and princes, of queens and princesses, all in beautiful clothes with jewels, looking down on him with solemn eyes.
There was a suit of armour near the door. Tom stood and looked at it. Then he took one of the arm-pieces and put it on. It was a small suit of armour and it was not too big for him. He took the other arm-piece. A heavy round thing fell out of it. He put on the other pieces and looked at himself in the glass. Then he put everything back as he had found it. He did not know what the round thing was, but he put it back inside the arm-piece.

Another hour! Tom began to feel afraid. ‘Someone will come and find me here and say: “Who are you? What are you doing here?” The Prince won’t be here to tell them the truth and they won’t believe what I say. What shall I do? I must get out of here!’
Then he thought: ‘Perhaps there is no one in the next room. If I walk quickly and peoplwe don’t see my face I may reach the gate, and the soldiers will let me out.’
So he opened the door. There were four gentlemen standing outside, two on each side of the door. They bowed low.
‘Oh! Oh! Oh!’ cried Tom and he ran back into the room and shut the door.
The gentlemen looked at each other.
‘I think Prince Edward is ill,’ said one.
‘Yes, perhaps he is,’ said another.
‘We should ask one of his sisters to go to him,’ said the third.
‘Lady Jane!’ said the fourth. ‘I’ll go to Lady Jane.’

The door of the Prince’s room opened. Tom ran back to the far end of the room. He saw a beautiful girl standing at the door. Her face was kind. He fell on his knees.
‘What’s the matter, my dear brother?’ said Lady Jane. ‘Why are you on your knees?’
‘Save me! Save me!’ cried Tom. ‘I’m not your brother. I’m not the Prince. I’m only a poor boy, Tom Canty of Pudding Lane.’
She took his hand. ‘Come,’ she said.
‘Send for the Prince and ask him to give me back my clothes!’ cried Tom.
‘Come,’ said Lady Jane. ‘Your father wants to see you.’
‘My father? Is John Canty here?’
But Lsdy Jane led him through one great room after another.

One of the gentlemen had told the King that Prince Edward was ill.
Tom was led into a very big room. There was a bed in it; and on the bed he saw a fat man with a white face. King Henry the Eighth was very ill: he had not long to live.
‘Come, Edward, tell your father the King: What is the matter?’
‘Are you the King?’ said Tom.
‘Yes, of course I’m the King, and I’m your father. What are you afraid of?’
‘Sir, I am not your son! I’m not the Prince. I’m poor Tom-’
The King looked at him angrily. ‘Stop this foolishness! You are the Prince, and if you say that you are not the Prince, I shall be very angry. And do you know what I do to people when I am angry? Do you?’
‘Yes, sir,’ said Tom.
‘Now go! Let me hear no more of this foolis talk. You have been reading too many books and they have turned your head,… Lord Hertford, go with the Prince. He must rest before going to the city banquet tonight. Many great men will be there to meet the Prince who will be King when I am dead. Then come back.’

Tom was led away to the Prince’s room. After a short time Lord Hertford came back to King Henry.
‘My lord,’ said the King, ‘I know that I have not long to live: but the work must be carried on. Orders must be given and laws must be made even when I am too ill to write my name or put my seal on them to make them a law. You must hold the Great Seal and use it for me.’
‘Yes, Your Majesty. It shall be as you say,’ said Lord Hertford. ‘Will you order that the Great Seal should be put in my hands? You gave it to Prince Edward two days ago.’
‘Yes! I did. Go and ask the Prince to give it to you.’
Lord Hertford went away and soon came back.
‘Your Majesty,’ he said, ‘the Prince doesn’t know where it is.’
‘He doesn’t know where it is? Did he say that?’
‘Yes, Your Majesty.’
‘He can’t remember what he did with it!’
‘No, Your Majesty.’
‘He’s il. That’s the reason. That’s why he can’t think.’
‘Yes, Your Majesty.’
‘Let it wait,’ said the King. ‘He’ll remember later, when he is well.’

Chapter FIVE
The Royal Barge

There were long steps going down from the Palace of Westminster to the river. The Royal Barge was a big boat in which the King travelled on the river. On each side of the steps soldiers stood waiting for their Prince to come out.
The great doors at the top of the steps opened. An order was given and the soldiers stood up very straight. Lord Hertford and other great gentlemen came out and stood on each side. Then they all bowed low as Tom was seen in the doorway. He was dressed in white. He stood there looking down at the river where in happier days he had played and gone swimming: but now he must be a prince. The King had ordered it. He walked slowly down the steps and got into the Royal Barge.
The Royal Barge moved out from the side. It moved down the river to the Guildhall-a hall in the city where the banquet was to be.
In the Guildhall all the great and rich men of London sat waiting for their Prince to come.

Chapter Six
Edward escapes

John Canty was pulling Edward along to his home in Pudding Lane. People followed laughing at the boy and his father.
‘That’s right!’ cried an old woman. ‘Teach the boy to do as he is told!’
As they came near the house an old man stepped out. ‘Let him go!’ he cried. ‘Let the boy go free.’
John Canty hit the old man on the head. He fell and lay there. The people passed over him as they followed John.
The old man still lay there: he was dead.

John Canty threw open the door of his room.
‘There!’ he said to his wife. ‘There’s your son. He hasn’t brought home one penny! And he’s mad!’
Tom’s mother ran to Edward. ‘Oh, my boy! My poor boy!’
The grandmother laughed. Your poor boy! Poor useless boy! It’s we who are poor.’
‘If you bring home no money, you get no food,’ said John Canty, throwing Edward down on the floor.
There was a voice outside the door. ‘John Canty! Quick! Open the door.’

‘What’s the matter?’ said Canty.
‘I’m your friend Ned. You hit an old man in the street. Didn’t you?’
‘Yes,’ said Canty ‘He tried to take my son away.’
‘It was Father Andrew; and he’s dead. You killed him. You had better get out of here quickly.’
‘Dead!’ said John. Then he turned to his wife and mother. ‘This is bad! A lot of people saw me hit the old man. They’ll tell the judge and I’ll be put to death. We must go! Take the girls and meet me at London Bridge. I’ll go by another road with the boy.’

Canty took Edward by the arm and led him through little streets and dark ways until they came near the river. Then he saw a crowd of people standing and looking out over the river. Some were sittinig at tables and drinking. On the banks of the river he saw fires and coloured lights.
‘What’s all this?’ Canty asked a man. ‘What are you all waiting for?’
‘We’re waiting to see Prince Edward in the Royal Barge. He’s going to a banquet at the Guildhall. Here, take this, drink it and shout: “God save Prince Edward!”
Canty put out his hands to take the large pot of drink. So he let go of Edward’s arm. Edward quickly ran away between the men’s legs.
Canty looked down. ‘Where’s the boy? Catch him!’
But Edward was lost in the darkness. ‘To the Guildhall!’ he told himself as he ran along the river-side. ‘There I can find Tom and be myself again.’

Chapter Seven
At the Guildhall

All the richest and greatest men of the city of London sat at the long tables in the Guildhall. As Tom came into the hall everyone stood up. He took his place at the top table: they sat down.
The banquet began. Servants brought in rich foods and set them on the tables. There was a great deal of talk and laughter. Singers came in and sang, and a company of dancers danced for them. Edward at last reached the Guildhall. Soldiers were standing at the door, but he cried: ‘I am Prince Edward! Opern the door and let me pass!’ The soldiers laughed at him.
‘I ordered you to open the door,’ cried Edward. ‘Do as I order! At once!’
‘Don’t be a fool,’ said one of the soldiers. ‘Stand back.’
But Edward went on shouting at the soldiers. The people in the crowd began to be angry.
‘Send the boy away. He’s mad,’ they said. ‘We want to see the Prince come out when the banquet is ended. Go away, boy! Go home!’
‘I won’t go! I tell you I am Prince Edward. I have no friends and no one to help me, but what I say is true.’

The crowd began to look dangerous, but Edward would not move. Then a man stepped out and stood by Edward’s side.
‘I don’t know whether you are the Prince, or not; I doon’t care whether you are mad or not; but you are a brave boy and I’ll help you.’
The man’s name was Miles Hendon. He had just come back from the war and was on his way to his house in the country.
The crowd moved nearer. In those days a London crowd could be very dangerous. ‘Stand back!’ cried Miles. The people were now very angry. Miles had to draw his sword. He hit a man with the side of it.
‘Kill them!’ cried a voice from the back of the crowd. Stones were thrown. A stone hit Edward and he fell. Miles stood over him and fought to keep him safe from the feet of the angry crowd. But there seemed to be little hope. They were so many, and Miles was only one. Miles laughed as he fought.
‘Who would have thought that I would live through seven years of war in France and then be killed by a crowd in London!’

There was the sound of horsemen, and a voice cried: ‘Way! Way for the King’s First Lord!’ The horsemen drove the crowd away and their leader went into the Guildhall.
Lord Hertford walked up the hall to the place where Tom sat. Then he went down on his knees. ‘Sir, your father the King is dead.’ Then he stood up and cried out to the people: ‘King Henry is dead. Long live King Edward,’ and all the people in the hall shouted: ‘Long live our King!’
Miles did not wait; he quickly led Edward away in the darkness.

Chapter Eight
At the inn

As soon as they were safely away from the crowd, Miles began to lead Edward to his inn near the river. As they passed through the streets they heard the sound of shouting behind them. People came running past them. Then the words of the shouting were heard:
‘King Henry is dead! Long live King Edward!’
Edward stopped.
‘What’s the matter?’ asked Miles.
‘So I am now the King!’
‘Prince or King,’ said Miles, ‘it’s all the same to me. You’re a brave boy and I’ll take care of you. Come along to my room near London Bridge and we’ll get some food. After that fighting I need a good meal.’
Miles had a room in an inn near the bridge. As they came near to the inn, Edward heard a voice that he knew too well!
‘So you have come at last,’ said John Canty. ‘I’ll give you a good beating for keeping me waiting so long.’ He put out a hand to take Edward’s arm.

Miles Hendon put Edward behind him and stood face to face with Canty.
‘Who are you?’ he said, ‘and what is this boy to you?’
‘He’s my son.’
‘That’s not true!’ cried Edward.
‘Do you want to go to this man?’ said Miles.
‘No! No! No!’ cried Edward. ‘He isn’t my father. I’ll die before I go to him.’
‘Then you shall not go to him,’ said Miles.
‘But I say that he will!’ cried Canty, and put out his hand again.
Miles put his hand to his sword. ‘If you come any nearer I shall put this sword through your body! Now go! Let me see no more of you! Go!’
Canty moved away and was lost in the crowd. Miles led Edward to a little inn, and went up to a small room at the back. There was a bed, two chairs and a table and a wash-place.

Edward threw imself down on the bed.
‘Call me when the meal is ready,’ he said.
Miles laughed. ‘Yes, Prince,’ he said. ‘Have a sleep and I’ll order your servants to make ready a banquet.’
He went down to the kitchen and brought food up to the room. He put the food down and set the two chairs at the side of the table.
‘Your banquet is ready, Prince,’ he said.
‘I thank you.’
‘Come then, and eat,’ said Miles.
‘I must wash my hands first,’ said Edward.
He washed, then sat down at the table. Miles was just going to sit down, when Edward stopped him: ‘Wait! Don’t you know that you must stand until your King gives you the order to sit down?-Now you may sit.’
Miles sat down and they began to eat.

‘Tell me who you are,’ said Edward.
‘I’m Miles Hendon, and I used to live at Hendon Hall. I was going to marry Lady Edith. But my younger brother, Arthur, told untrue stories to my father about me, and I was sent away to fight in the war. I have been out of England for seven years; and I’m afraid that my brother may not readily give up my home and my lands after so long a time.’
‘I shall order your brother to give you back your land, and as King I shall add more to it,’ said Edward. ‘You have served your King well. Give me your sword. Go down on your knees… Rise, Sir Miles Hendon!’
Miles did as he was told. When he stood up again he laughed and said: ‘So now I am Sir Miles!’
‘You are Sir Miles Hendon,’ said Edward. ‘I have made you one of my own men.’

When they had eaten, Edward fell asleep with his head on the table. Miles took him up and put him on the bed.
‘Poor boy!’ he said. ‘He needs sleep. After a long sleep perhaps he’ll be well again and stop thinking he is a Prince or King, but be himself again.’
Miles slept on the floor.
When morning came, Miles woke up. He looked at the boy sleeping on the bed and saw how bad his clothes were. The schoolboys had thrown Edward into the dirty water and the crowd at the Guildhall had nearly pulled them off his body.
‘I must go and buy some clothes for my prince,’ he said, and went out.

One hour later Miles came back carrying the clothes that he had bought. He opened the door of his room and looked at the bed.
Edward was not there!
Miles ran down and asked the servant of the inn: ‘Where is the boy?’
‘A young man named Hugo came to the inn and said: “Tell the boy to meet Miles Hendon at Soughwark Bridge”; and the boy went.’
‘That man!’ Miles thought. ‘That man who said that the boy is his son! He sent the young man!’
Miles gathered his things together, paid the inn, and set out to find the boy.

Chapter Nine
In Westminster Palace

Tom was in bed in Westminster Palace. It was morning. Two gentlemen stood by the side of the Prince’s bed.
‘Your Majesty!’ said the First Gentleman.
‘It is eight o’clock, Your Majesty,’ said the Second Gentleman.
At first Tom thought that he was in the room in Pudding Lane and that his mother was calling him to get up. Then he opened his eyes and saw the two gentlemen standing by the side of his bed.
‘Your Majesty.’
‘What?’ said Tom.
‘Does Your Majesty wish to rise?’
‘Do you mean:”Do I want to get up?” ‘
‘Yes, Your Majesty.’
‘Yes,’ said Tom. ‘I do. Bring my clothes.’
One gentleman brought Tom’s underclothes into the room and gave them to a Second Gentleman, and the Second Gentleman gave them to a Third Gentleman and the Third Gentleman helped Tom to get into his underclothes. Then the First Gentleman brought his shirt and gave it to the Second Gentleman and the Second Gentleman gave it to the Third Gentleman and the Third Gentleman put the shirt on Tom. And this was done with each thing.

Tom went into another room to have his breakfast. One servant brought the food into the room and gave it to a Second Servant, and the Second Servant gave it to a Third Servant, and the Third Servant put it on the table.
A Fourth Servant and a Fifth Servant just stood behind Tom’s chair and did nothing.

After breakfast a gentleman came and said, ‘Lord Hertford wishes to speak with the King.’
Then Lord Hertford asked if His Majesty was ready to go the Council Chamber-a big room where meetings were held.
Tom sat in a high chair covered with gold at the end of the room. Men came and bowed, and kissed his hand and read from long pieces of paper. This went on for hour after hour.
‘When will this end?’ he thought. ‘I wish I could go and play ball or go for a swim in the river!’

At last Tom learnt that it was time for dinner. He went into another great hall. It was nearly as big as the Guildhall and there were as many servants. Tom thought that the dinner would never end!
‘After this,’ he thought, ‘I can go and play or swim.’ But after dinner he had to go and write, Edward on one paper after another. He did not know what was written in the papers and he did not care. He saw how the real Edward had written his name and he made his writting just the same.
In the evening there was another great dinner.
When at last Tom went to bed he said to himself: ‘The clothes are beatiful and it is a beautiful house,and the food is nice, but I don’t like being King. I wish I could go back to Pudding Lane and play with the other boys and swim in the river.’

Chapter Ten
Thief! Thief!

Edward looked at the young man: he did not like him. He was dirty and his eyes looked from side to side, never straight at Edward.
‘Who sent you?’
‘Miles Hendon.’
‘What is your name?’
‘My name is Hugo.’
‘What did Sir Miles say?’
‘He said, “Tell the boy to come to me.” ‘
‘Tell!’ Edward was surprised and rather angry. ‘I am his King.’
‘He is wounded. He asks you to come and help him.’
‘Ah,’ said Edward . ‘Then I’ll go. He is my true servant and I will help him.’

The young man led Edward out into the country. They went on, and on, and on.
‘Where is Sir Miles?’ said Edward.
‘Not far from here,’ said the young man. ‘He’s there in that wood.’
They went into the wood. There was a hut in the wood, hidden among the trees.
Hugo opened the door and Edward went in.
‘So you have come at last!’ said John Canty. ‘You have come to help your dear father who is hiding here because he killed a foolish old man.’
‘Where is Sir Miles?’ said Edward. ‘Take me to him.’
‘I don’t know where you friend is; but you seemed to love him so much that I told Hugo to use his name. Now you’ll go out with Hugo and get money and food for your dear father. You know how to beg, and Hugo will see that you don’t run away.’

Hugo led Edward out into the road on the other side of the wood.
‘Stand here!’ he said. ‘I’m your brother and I’m very ill. Soon someone will come along the road. I’ll cry out in pain and you’ll go to him, and say, “My poor brother! He’s ill and we haven’t had any food. Help us.” …. There! There’s someone coming.’
Hugo threw himself down at the side of the road and began to cry out ‘Ah! Ah! Ah! I’m dying! … Water! Help!’
The man came to him. ‘Poor boy,’ he said. ‘Let me help you.’
‘King sir,’ said Hugo, ‘give my brother a penny to go and buy food.’
‘But you’re ill! I can’t leave you here in such pain. Your brother will help me to take you to a house.’ He turned to Edward. ‘Come, boy, help me to carry your brother to a house where he can be cared for.’
‘I’m the King,’ said Edward. ‘That isn’t my brother: he’s a beggar and a thief. And he isn’t ill.’
The man looked at Hugo. ‘Ha!’ he said, ‘another of those beggars! You shall come with me to the judge, and he’ll have you beaten or put to death!’
Hugo jumped up and ran away among the trees and the man could not follow him.

Edward went on along the road, very glad to be safely away from Hugo. ‘Now,’ he said, ‘I shall never see him or John Canty again.’ But just then Hugo jumped out on him from the trees at the side of the road.
‘So you wanted to have me put to death!’ said Hugo. ‘Don’t you know that beggars and thieves are put to death? I’ll remember this and teach you a lesson!’
As Hugo walked along by Edward’s side he was thinking just what he could do to ‘teach Edward a lesson’.
They came to a town. There were a great many people in the street buying and selling. A woman passed by, carrying a basket. In the basket there was a fine fat hen ready for cooking. Hugo took up a heavy stone from the groung: then he walked along behind the woman. He put the stone in her basket and took out the hen. Then he ran quickly and put the hen in Edward’s arms. He shouted ‘Thief! Thief! and went off along the street.

The woman turned. She saw Edward holding her fat hen.
‘There’s the thief!’ she cried. ‘Constable! Call the constable!’
An angry crowd gathered round Edward. ‘We won’t wait for the constable,’ said a big man. ‘There are too many thieves in this place. Let’s put an end to him ourselves.’
Edward heard the sound of a horse. He looked up and saw Miles Hendon making his way through the crowd.
‘Sir Miles!’ he cried. ‘Sir Miles! Help me!’
Miles made his way through the crowd. ‘So I have found you at last!’ he said. ‘Now what’s the matter?’
‘That woman says that I stole her hen.’
‘He took it out of my basket, and there it is!’
‘Ah,’ said Miles, ‘that’s a nice fat bird: just what I ordered you to get for me. But you should have asked the woman if she would sell it.’

Miles took the woman’s arm and led her to one side. ‘My servant is rather foolish,’ he said. ‘He’s a mad boy who thinks that he is the King; so you won’t be unkind to him, will you? I am sure he put the money in your basket,’ said Miles. ‘Let me look in it.’ (Miles put his hand inside the basket. He had money ready in his hand.) ‘Yes! Here it is. Fifty pence. You musn’t say that a boy is a thief until you are sure.’
‘Here!’ said the woman, ‘take the hen. I don’t want the money.’
But Miles put the money in her basket.
‘Come, boy!’ he said, and took Edward up on to his horse, and rode away.
‘How did you find me?’ asked Edward.
‘I met a man in an inn. He told me about two beggars. One of them said, “I am the King and that isn’t my brother.” So I knew that one of them was you.’
‘Where are we going now?’
‘To Hendon Hall,’ said Miles.
‘You may take me with you; but after that I must go quickly to be crowned in Westminster.’

Chapter Eleven
Hendon Hall

Miles and Edward spent the night in an inn and went on next day.
In the afternoon they went up a high hill and Miles stopped. He pointed to a big house among the trees. ‘There!’ he said, ‘That’s my home! Have you ever seen such a big house? There are fifty rooms in it and we had twenty servants. Think of that, boy-twenty servants!’
They rode down the hill. ‘See, here’s the church where we went on Sundays. There’s the inn. Nothing is changed.’
They passed through a big gate. ‘This is Hendon Hall,’ said Miles. ‘How glad I am to be back again! How happy they will all be to see me!’
Miles jumped down from the horse and helped Edward to get down. Then he ran into the house.
A young man was sitting at a table.
‘Arthur!’ Miles cried. ‘Say that you are glad to see me again. Where’s my father?’

The young man looked up. ‘Who are you?’ he said.
‘I’m Miles Hendon, and you are my brother Arthur. I have just come back from the war after seven years.’
‘My brother Miles was killed in battle three years ago. I had a letter from France saying that he was dead.’
‘That isn’t true! Call my father, Sir Robert! Where is my father? He’ll know me.’
‘Sir Robert is dead.’
‘Call the servants-those who were here seven years ago. They’ll know me.’
‘They are all new. None of those servants are here now.’
‘You sent them all away! I see it! You made ready for my home-coming. No one must know me! No one must say, “That’s Miles Hendon”. But Lady Edith will remember me.’

‘Lady Edith knows that Miles Hendon is dead,’ said Arthur. ‘She saw the letter, and she will soon become my wife.’
‘You wrote the letter! You told her that I was dead!’
Miles ran across the room at his brother ‘You have stolen my home! You have stolen my land; and now you want to steal Lady Edith, who was to be my wife!’
He threw Arthur to the floor.
‘Help! Help! Help!’ shouted Arthur. The servants heard his cries and ran into the room. They carried Miles and Edward away to the prison.

Chapter Twelve
Prison

Miles and Edward were in prison.
‘How long do you think we shall be here?’ asked Edward.
‘We shall be kept here in prison until the judge comes. Then he will hear what Arthur has to say and he will give judgement.’
‘What judgement?’ said Edward.
‘Perhaps he will think that you and I are both mad and will order us to be beaten and sent away.’
‘Beat me? The Kink?’ said Edward.

They heard a sound at the door. It opened and a man came in. He put some food down on the table. Then, as he turned to go away, he looked at Miles’s face, and stopped.
‘Basil!’ cried Miles. ‘Basil! You used to work in the garden when my father was alive.’
‘Why! Yes!’ said the man. ‘It’s Mister Miles. No: it can’t be. Mr Miles was killed in the war.’
‘He wasn’t killed, Basil. My brother Arthur wrote a letter himself to say that I had been killed because he wanted my land and Lady Edith. Now I have come home.’
‘Mister Miles, I’m glad to see you again. Your brother Arthur is a bad man. He sent all the old servants away. I’ll tell everyone that you are back again.’
‘No! No!’ said Miles. ‘You mustn’t tell anyone that I’m here. If my brother thinks that anyone knows me, he’ll send men to kill me when I get out of prison.’
‘Yes,’ said Basil. ‘He would do that.’
‘When I am set free from here,’ said Miles, ‘I shall go to London, where I have friends. Sir Humphrey Marlow is captain of the soldiers at Westminster Palace, and he was with me in France. He knows that I wasn’t killed in the war. And there are others. I’ll go to them, and they’ll go to the King. The King will give me back my home and my land. Say nothing, Basil, till I come here again.’
Edward laughed. ‘The King!’ he said. ‘Ask him who is King now.’
‘King Henry is dead,’ said Basil. ‘Men say that the young Prince Edward is not crowned yet, but he will be crowned soon, and he will be our King.’
‘We must escape from this prison!’ cried Edward. ‘I must go to London to be crowned.’
The judge heard Arthur’s story.
‘Who is this man?’ he asked.
‘I don’t know,’ answered Arthur. ‘How could I know? He is some thief or beggar, and he’s mad. He thinks that he’s my brother Miles, who was killed in battle three years ago; and I am told that this boy who is with him is quite mad: he thinks that he is the King.’
‘Let the man be put in the stocks and let the boy be beaten so that he may learn to find better friends.’
‘No! sir,’ cried Miles. ‘The boy is very young and he isn’t strong: he’s ill. Let me have the beating!’
‘It shall be as you ask,’ said the judge.
So Miles was beaten, and then put in the stocks. People came to look at him and throw things at him, but Edward stood in front. ‘Keep back!’ he cried. ‘This is my friend. I order you to keep back!’
The people laughed. ‘He’s a brave boy,’ they said, ‘and he loves his friend.’ They threw a few things at Miles-some bad eggs and old fruit- but not very much.
So Miles sat in the stocks all day. In the evening Basil came and brought them food and Miles was set free.
Then Miles and Edward set out to go to London.

Chapter Thirteen
The King is crowned

When Miles and Edward reached London they found the streets full of people. Flags were hanging from all the buildings.
They went to an inn and had a meal. When it was finished, Edward said: ‘Bring me a pen and paper. I want to write a letter.’
‘Who will you write to?’ asked Miles, laughing. ‘To the King? He won’t read letters today! He’s going to be crowned today.’
Edward sat thinking with the pen and paper in front of him. ‘What can I write which will make the great lords believe me? What do I know that Tom can’t know-something that no other person in the world knows? … Yes; there is one thing!’
He wrote a few words. ‘Now,’ he said, ‘let’s go to Westminster.’

Miles and Edward came to the gate of Westminster Palace. All the great lords and ladies of the country were gathering together in Westminster Abbbay- the church in which all the Kings and Queens of England are crowned. In the Palace of Westminster, Tom was ready to put on the fine clothes in which he would go to Westminster to be crowned. With him were Lord Hertford and Lord Somerset and the rulers of the land. At the door stood Sir Humphrey Marlow waiting to give the order to the soldiers who were to march with the Prince to the Abbey.
There was a noise at the gate, shouting and sounds of fighting. Sir Humphrey turned to one of his men: ‘Go and see what is happening.’
In a short time the man came back. ‘There’s a man there-and a boy with him. The man says that he is Miles Hendon; and the boy says that he has a letter for the King. I think he’s mad. He says that he is the King!’
‘Miles Hendon!’ said Sir Humphrey. ‘He’s a brave man and a good soldier. What is he doing in a fight at the Palace gates?’
Tom stepped forward. ‘Did you say a boy?-with a letter?’
‘Yes, Your MNajesty.’
‘Bring them here.’
‘But, Your Majesty-’ said Sir Humphrey.
‘I order it! Bring them at once!’
So Miles and Edward were led into the room where Tom and all the great men were gathered.
As Edward came in through the door, Tom ran and threw himself down on his knees.
‘Your Majesty!’ he cried. ‘You have come just in time!’
‘The madness has come on him again,’ said Lord Hertford. ‘What shall we do?’

Edward had raised Tom up, and they stood side by side.
‘Take hold of that boy!’ cried Sir Humphrey, pointing to Edward. Then he turned to Miles.
‘Milesm what are you doing here?’
‘Stop!’ cried Lord Hertford. ‘Look at those two faces. They are so like each other, I could almost believe… I don’t know what to think. Perhaps our Prince here was not mad: perhaps he is not the real Prince.’
‘Is there any question that we could ask the boy which would help us?’ said Lord Somerset.
Lord Hertford turned to Edward and asked him question after question – about King Henry, about Edward’s mother, about the palace and those who worked in it. Edward answered all the questions.
‘But,’ said Lord Somerset, ‘he might know all those things but not be the real Prince.’

‘What is in that letter?’ said Tom.
Lord Hertford took the paper and read:

WHERE IS THE GREAT SEAL?

He turned to Tom. ‘I asked you, Your Majesty, many days ago, but you didn’t tell me.’
‘I don’t know what the Great Seal is, and I don’t know where it is,’ said Tom.
‘Lord inside the arm-piece of the suit of armour in my room,’ said Edward, ‘and you’ll find it.’
‘Oh that!’ cried Tom. ‘That round heavy thing! I-’
‘What did you do with it?’ cried Lord Hertford. ‘Tell me!’
‘I used it to crack nuts.’
‘He used it to crack nuts!’ The great lords and rulers of the land laughed and laughed.

Chapter Fourteen
The end

So the real Edward was crowned King and he was a very good king because he had been among the people and he had learnt how they lived and what they needed. Tom lived in the Palace and was the King’s best friend.
Sir Miles got his home and his land again and married Lady Edith. King Edward often went and visited him at Hendon Hall,where Basil was working as head gardener.
John Canty was never seen again, but Tom gave his mother and his two sisters a very nice house in the country.
King Edward did not live very long. When he died, Tom went and lived with his mother and sisters, and he wrote this story telling how Tom, the pauper, was for a few days King of England.

QUESTIONS

CHAPTER 1 Tom Canty

1 When did this story happen?
2 Why was Tom Canty’s father a pauper? ‘Because….’
3 What did the children do to get money?
4 Who taught Tom Latin?
5 What was the name of the King?

Chapter 2 How Tom and the Prince changed places

1 What did one of the soldiers do to Tom?
2 What did the Prince tell the soldier to do?
3 What did the servant bring?
4 How many sisters did the Prince have?
5 How did the Prince and Tom look in the glass? ‘Just…’
6 What did the Prince take up from the table?

Chapter 3 How the Prince came to Tom Canty’s home

1 Who said that Edward was mad?
2 Why did the stones hurt Edward’s feet? ‘Because …’
3 What was Christ’s Hospital?
4 What did the boys do to Edward?
5 Whose ‘heavy hand came out of the darkness’?

Chapter 4 What happened to Tom in the Palace

1 What did Tom look at? ‘At his …’
2 What was near the door?
3 What fell out of the arm-piece?
4 Who were standing outside the door?
5 What did Tom do when he saw Lady Jane?
6 How long could King Henry live?
7 Who gave the Great Seal to Prince Edward?

Chapter 5 The Royal Barge

1 What was the Royal Barge?
2 What was the Guildhall?
3 Who were waiting in the Guildhall?

Chapter 6 Edward escapes

1 Where was Canty going?
2 What did Canty do to the old man?
3 Who was dead?
4 What did Canty see on the banks of the river?
5 What were the people waiting to see?
6 Why did Canty let go of Edward’s arm? ‘So as to take the …’

Chapter 7 At the Guildhall

1 What did the people do when Tom came into the hall?
2 What did Edward tell the soldiers to do?
3 A man came to help Edward. What was his name?
4 Why did Edward fall?
5 Why did Lord Hertford cry out?

Chapter 8 At the inn

1 Whose voice did Edward hear?
2 What things were there in Miles’s room?
3 Who was Arthur? What did he do?
4 Where did Miles sleep?
5 What did Miles go out to buy?

Chapter 9 In Westminster Palace

1 What was the Council Chamber?
2 What did Tom think? ‘I wish I could….’
3 What did Tom do after dinner?

Chapter 10 Thief! Thief!

1 Where was the hut?
2 ‘Help me to carry your brother.’ What was Edward’s answer?
3 What did Hugo take from the basket?
4 Who came through the crowd?
5 What did Miles pay for the hen?

Chapter 11 Hendon Hall
1 What house did they go to?
2 Who was sitting at the table?
3 What did Arthur say about Miles?
4 What did Miles do to Arthur?
5 The servants carried Miles and Edward to …

Chapter 12 Prison

1 How long will Miles and Edward be in prison? ‘Until the …. comes’
2 What may the judge order?
3 Who was Basil?
4 Who was Sir Humphrey Marlow?
5 Why must Edward go to London?
6 Who was beaten? Miles or Edward?

Chapter 13 The King is crowned

1 What were hanging from the buildings?
2 Where are the Kings and Queens of England crowned?
3 What was Tom doing?
4 What did Tom order Sir Humphrey to do?
5 What did Tom do when Edward came into the room?
6 What was written in the letter?
7 Where was the Great Seal?
8 What had Tom done with the Great Seal? ‘He used it to ….’

Chapter 14 The End

1 Why was Edward a good king?
2 Who did Miles marry?
3 What did Tom give his mother and sisters?

List of Extra Words
armour: iron covering for the head and body in war in old times
banquet: a great meal of fine food
beg: ask for money in the streets; a beggar does this
bow: bend one’s body
constable: a man who makes people keep the law
crack nuts: break open the hard seeds of certain trees so as to eat the inside part
crowd: a lot of people all together
escape: run away; get free
gate: a way through an outside wall, closed by wide doors
inn: a house where travellers can eat and drink, or have a room to sleep in
judge: a man who can order punishment for those who break the law
lord: a man of very high place
mad: ill in the mind
pauper: a very poor person
prison: a place where those who break the law are locked up
stocks: a place where a law-breaker had to sit with his legs held between pieces of wood while people threw things at him
swim: move through water by using one’s arms and legs
Your Majesty: words used when speking to a king or queen

Pip becomes young man.One day lawyer says that Pip’s life will change in a good way.Pip goes to London.He has a good job and he becomes rich.But he thinks Miss Havishams helps him for having a better life.

One day Mr. Joe visits him for telling something.He talks about his sister.His sister had died.So Pip is very upset.

One night when Pip is alone at home,he hears some noise and he goes to the door.He sees a man.He comes slowly.Pip suprises ! Because the man is a convict who Pip helped.Convict tells the truth.He is a person who changes Pip’s life.

Pip visits Estella and Miss. Havishmas.Pip says that he loves Estella But Estella says she doesn’t love anybody and she doesn’t belive love.

The convict arrests by the police.After a few months Pip learns that the convict the convict has died.At the same time , Miss Havishams dies and leaves all her fortune to Estella.Pip decides to go back to the village.When he goes there , he learns Joe’s wedding.And before going back to London he wants to see Estella once.Pip goes to Estella and he says that he wants to marry to Estella.She accepts.

At the end of story everybody get happy.

Thirdly, globalisation effects cultures, which ones open to being globalise, but it does not have an influence only cultural area. We can not separate or evaluate the effects of globalisation only one field, like culture. Interaction between cultures also leads to changing legal areas. For example, Turkish Republic accepted the Switzerland civil code and still using this civil code. It shows that interaction between cultures bring the other effectors together like others.

To sum up, interaction of the peoples is an inevitable and interactions will continue as long as humanity live on the world. It is important issue that this kind of interactions should not change completely or destroy identify of the nations.

Commentary
This funny little poem again exhibits Donne’s metaphysical love-poem mode, his aptitude for turning even the least likely images into elaborate symbols of love and romance. This poem uses the image of a flea that has just bitten the speaker and his beloved to sketch an amusing conflict over whether the two will engage in premarital sex. The speaker wants to, the beloved does not, and so the speaker, highly clever but grasping at straws, uses the flea, in whose body his blood mingles with his beloved’s, to show how innocuous such mingling can be–he reasons that if mingling in the flea is so innocuous, sexual mingling would be equally innocuous, for they are really the same thing. By the second stanza, the speaker is trying to save the flea’s life, holding it up as “our marriage bed and marriage temple.”
But when the beloved kills the flea despite the speaker’s protestations (and probably as a deliberate move to squash his argument, as well), he turns his argument on its head and claims that despite the high-minded and sacred ideals he has just been invoking, killing the flea did not really impugn his beloved’s honor–and despite the high-minded and sacred ideals she has invoked in refusing to sleep with him, doing so would not impugn her honor either.
This poem is the cleverest of a long line of sixteenth-century love poems using the flea as an erotic image, a genre derived from an older poem of Ovid. Donne’s poise of hinting at the erotic without ever explicitly referring to sex, while at the same time leaving no doubt as to exactly what he means, is as much a source of the poem’s humor as the silly image of the flea is; the idea that being bitten by a flea would represent “sin, or shame, or loss of maidenhead” gets the point across with a neat conciseness and clarity that Donne’s later religious lyrics never attained.

Nitroglycerin/Nitrocellulose

Five hundred years after Berthold Schwarts invented the gun, Ascano Sobrero (Italian) mixed nitric acid and glycerin to obtain nitroglycerine–an explosive so unstable that it could be detonated by the touch of a feather. One mole of nitroglycerine (227g) releases 1427 kJ upon exploding. It’s volume increases from a liquid of approximately 1/4 L to gases occupying approximately 650 L.

In 1845, Christian Schoenbein made nitrocellulose (guncotton) by dipping cotton in a mixture of nitric and sulfuric acids. However, the material obtained was too unstable to be used as an explosive. Major E. Schultze (1860) of the Prussian army produced a useful propellant. He nitrated small pieces of wood by placing them in nitric acid and impregnated the pieces with barium and potassium nitrates. The purpose of the latter was to provide oxygen to burn the incompletely nitrated wood. Schultze’s powder was highly successful in shotguns but was too fast for cannon or even most rifles. In 1884 a French chemist, Paul Vieille, made the first smokeless powder as it is now known. He partially dissolved nitrocellulose in a mixture of ether/alcohol, then he rolled it into sheets and cut into flakes. When the solvent evaporated, it left a hard, dense material. This product gave satisfactory results in all types of guns.

Alfred Nobel (1833-1896)
Alfred Nobel mixed nitroglycerin and silica (SiO2) forming a paste that could be safely used as an explosive–he patented this material as dynamite (1867). Nobel also invented the blasting cap to provide a safe and dependable means for detonating. Nobel’s original blasting cap consisted of 80% mercury fulminate [Hg(ONC)2] and 20% potassium chlorate. Blsting caps today are lead azide [Pb(N3)2] due to its greater stability when stored under hot conditions.
A French newspaper–thinking Alfred and not his brother had died in 1886–ran his obituary under the headline, “The merchant of death is dead.” Nobel, displeased that his inventions became an instrument of war, established the Nobel Prize in categories reflecting his interests (Chemistry, Physics, Medicine, Literature, Peace).

Ballistite
In 1887 Nobel introduced ballistite, 40% nitrocellulose/60% nitroglycerin blended together with diphenylamine. When cut into flakes, this made an excellent propellant and it continued in use for over 75 years. The British refused to recognize Nobel’s patent and developed a number of similar products under the generic name cordite.

Cordite
Sir James Dewar (1842-1923) is best known for his work with low-temperature–he invented the thermos and produced both hydrogen and oxygen in liquid form. Along with Sir Frederick Abel, Dewar invented cordite (1889). This smokeless gunpowder consists of nitroglycerin, guncotton, and a petroleum substance gelatinized by addition of acetone.

Trinitrotoluene (TNT)
Trinitrotoluene is a high explosive that is unaffected by ordinary shocks and therefore must be set off by a detonator. TNT is often mixed with other explosives such as ammonium nitrate to form amatol. Because it is insensitive to shock and must be exploded with a detonator, it is the most favored explosive used in munitions and construction.
Why do nitro groups (NO2) lead to unstable compounds? Nitrogen has charge of +1 and nitro group have a strong tendency to withdraw (pull) electrons from other parts of the compound. Attaching three nitro groups to a compound leads to an extremely unstable situation.

Pentaerythritoltetranitrate (PETN)
PETN is a powerful high explosive with 140% the power of TNT. Because PETN is more sensitive to shock or friction than TNT, it is primarily used in small caliber ammunition.

Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine (RDX)
Also called RDX, Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine is a white crystalline solid usually used in mixtures with other explosives, oils, or waxes. RDX has a high degree of stability in storage and is considered the most powerful high explosive. RDX is the main ingredient in plastic explosives.

ANFO (Ammonium Nitrate Fertilizer)

Although ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) is a benign fertilizer, when mixed with fuel oil it becomes a deadly bomb (ANFO). Dynamite or TNT are usually used to detonate ANFO (military manuals suggest using one pound of TNT for every fifty pounds of fertilizer). The deadly Oklahoma City Bomb was ANFO.

du Pont de Nemours (1771-1834)
DuPont is one of the oldest continuously operating industrial enterprises in the world. The company was established in 1802 near Wilmington, Delaware, by a French immigrant, Eleuthére Irénée du Pont de Nemours, to produce black powder. The company was capitalized at $36,000 with 18 shares* at $2000 each. du Pont de Nemours had been a student of Antoine Lavoisier, the father of modern chemistry, and he brought to America some new ideas about the manufacture of consistently reliable gun and blasting powder. Due to increasing competition in the early 1900s, DuPont made the transition from an explosives manufacturer to a diversified chemical company.
* The $2000 investment in 1802 is worth approximately $2.5 billion today.

It is easy to see from this description that all work, be it professional or not, is subject to the whims of chaos. Any one in public service, be it a doctor or a cashier at Quality Dairy, deals with uncertainty while dealing with the public. It is impossible to predict with certain accuracy what is going to happen next. Even less public driven jobs have this uncertainty. The long term is even worse. How can any given action be used to explain why something happens later? Sometimes good guesses can be made. (“Hey, maybe I should have told that guy to stop smoking.”) Still, it is difficult in to prove causality in most cases. There are usually several alternate explanations for every occurrence.

Education and teaching are forced to deal with chaos. The initial, and all subsequent conditions, are not know to an infinite degree of accuracy with any given student or class. Hence, chaos must ensue. This chaos can be seen in two ways. First, every class session is uncertain until it occurs. Despite the best developed lesson plans and class management techniques, the class will be subject to an infinite number of possible occurrences. Second, it is difficult to see the connection between teaching and learning. How can a teacher know what is taught is best for the student’s learning in the short and long terms. Sometimes, good assumptions can be made by studying students. However, all students are subject to a variety of chaos in their lives at school and in the world. Which effect beyond teaching could have effected the result? Educators will always deal with uncertainty in both how and what they should teach.

Lampert describes several good examples of the first kind of chaos in education. Wrote Lampert (181, 182), “When I consider the conflicts that arise in the classroom for my perspective as a teacher, I do not see a choice between abstract social goals…What I see are tensions between individual students, or personal confrontations between myself and a particular group of boys or girls. When I think about rewarding Dennis’s excellent, though boisterous, contributions to problem-solving discussions, while at the same time encouraging reticent Sandra to take an equal part in class activities, I cannot see my goals as a neat dichotomy and my job as making clear choices. My aims for any one particular student are tangled with my aims for each of the others in the class, and, more importantly, I am responsible for choosing a course of action in circumstances where choice leads to further conflict.”

Lampert accurately describes the first form of educational uncertainty. She further makes it clear that not only do students add to uncertainty in the classroom, so does the teacher. The teacher is an agent of chaos in the classroom. Every decision a teacher makes leads to an infinite number of possible new class scenarios. Of all the people in the room, the teacher is the most chaotic element because the teacher makes the decisions that drive many of the reactions of the other agents in the room. And, the failure to make a decision, in and of itself, is a decision and this also contributes to chaos.

The connection between teaching and learning is also tenuous at best, which creates further uncertainty. Wrote Buchmann and Floden (213), “Students’ behavioral, emotional, and cognitive responses are affected by the contexts in which they live, of which school is only one (albeit, for some, an important one). The child whose creative writing suddenly improves may have been inspired by a parent’s comment, not the teacher’s language arts unit. The student who has never completed her homework can turn in a carefully composed essay. The lesson that has always excited students can miscarry with this year’s class. Although experienced teachers have some sense of how students will react to a lesson or assignment, some uncertainty remains.”

How does thinking about chaos theory help teachers? It helps when you look at the way chaos theorists view uncertainty. Since you can not account for everything, approach each task ready to deal with anything. (You may think that your ship is unsinkable. However, if you sail it enough times, eventually, it will sink.) Since you can not ever be certain as to results, do what you think based on your education and experience when designing something. This is a wise view and one held by many educators who do not actively think of chaos. Actions must be taken in the classroom despite uncertainty caused by chaos. Wrote Buchmann and Floden (221), “Neverless, teaching and learning require decision, not helpless hesitation. Decisive action, however, may give the appearance of certitude. Indeed, it is this appearance that deceives novice teachers into thinking that their experienced colleagues are sure of their subjects, students, and efficacy. Brisk confidence can still be helpful.” As long as uncertainty and chaos are awaited with acceptance and calmness, confidence is a good approach to chaos.

The good news about chaos is that it is natural. It is a key component of the universe. Chaos may cause uncertainty but it also creates the opportunities that create hope and change. Teachers need to prepare for chaos and accept uncertainty as a natural condition. Teachers can not control the entire universe. But they can make impacts on the small slice of the universe they reside in despite all the chaos evident in it.

This is where we have to turn tı theorist who see organizations as complex social systems, responsive to a number of interdependent and important variables. The key variables that are of greatest interest to those adopting a systems approach to organizations are as follows;
• People
• Technology
• Organizations structure
• Environment

More recent studies, such as those of Pugh and colleagues, have developed a more comprehensive and multi-dimensional approach, utilising all the above variables. The researcher, so far, have indicated that there is no best one way of designing organizations to meet their current objectives. On the contrary, the evidence seems to be suggest that variables are so volatile that only a “contingency” approach can prove practicable. This suggest that organizations can only be made viavle when steps are taken to adapt them to a particular set of prevailing conditions.

Productivity and Social Organization (1958) in which Rice elaborated on key aspect of systems theory as applied to organizations. Rica saw any industrial i.e as on open system, importing various items from its environment converting them into goods, services and waste materials, and then exporting them into the environment. An operating system and a managing system. The operating system deals with the import, conversion and export of the product or service, while the managing system deals with the control, decision making and communication aspects of the total system.

Operating System Managing System
• Import
• Conversion
• Export of the product or service • Control
• Decision making
• Communication aspects of the total system

The studies at Ahmedabad produced, among other things, some interesting conclusion about the design of work. These can be summarized as follows;

• Effective performance of a primariy task is an important source of satisfaction at all levels
• of work
• The capacity for voluntary cooperation is more extensive than is often expected
• There is great benefit in allowing individuals to complete a whole task
• Work groups oof eight seem to have the best chance of success for achieving group tasks
• There is clear relationship between work effectiveness and social relations
• Where group autonomy has been established, unnecessary interference by supervisor will be counter-productive.

The above findings have been incorporated into current ideason the design and redesign of work so as to meet social and psychological needs of employees as well as the reuirements of changing technology.
The final example of the work of teh Tavistock Group relates to another key factor in system theory- the nature of the environment. Emery and Trist were the first to produce a classifation of environment as follows;
I) Placid, Randomized; this represent a relatively unchanging anf homogenous environment, whose demands are randomly distributed.
II) Placid, Clustered; this environment too, is relatively unchanging, but its threats and rewards are clustered. So, for example, in a monopoly situations an organizations’ s failure or success depends on its contiuned hold over the market.
III) Disturbed, reactive; in this environment there is competition between organizaitons, and this may include hindering tactics.
IV) Turbulent field; this describes a dynamic and rapidly changing environment, in which organizations must adapt frrequently in order to survive.

Emery and Trist have been particulary interest in the last type; the Turbulent field. This is an area where existing forma lor bureaucratized structures are ill-suited to deal with their environment. According to writers, more and more environments are becoming turbulent, and yet organizations structures are not becoming correspondingly flexible.

KATZ & KAHN

Katz and kahn see social structures as essentially contrived systems, where the forces that hold them together are psychological rather tahn biological. Social systems are seen to be more variable than biological systems anda re more difficult to study because thay have no easily recognizable boundariesç they have a structure, but it is a structure of event, rather than of physical parts. Nevertheless Katz and KAhn set out describe their view of social systems and their related sub-systems

The follow similar lines to Rice in advocating an open system approach, in which they identify five sub-systems at work in organizaitons. These are following;

1) Production or Technical sub-systems; these are concerned with the accomplishment of the task of the organizations (production of goods, provision of services
2) Supportive sub-systems; these are the systems which procedure the inputs and dispose of the outputs of the production sub-systems. They also maintain the relationship between the organization as a whole anf the external environment.
3) Maintenance sub- systems; these are concerned with the relative stability or predictability of teh organization. They provide for the roles, the rules and the rewards applicable those who work in the organizations.
4) Adaptive Sub-systems; the above systems serve the organizations as it is. The adaptive sub-systems are concerned wiht what the organizations might become. They deal with issues a change in the environment e.g; research & development, product research and long-range planning
5) Managerial Sub-systems; these comprise the controlling and coordinating activities of the total system they deal with the coordination of substructures, the resolution of conflict, and the coordination of external requirements with the organization’ s reseources.

Turning to the hypotheses, Table 1 shows that a positive and significant association is at
hand between customer satisfaction and repurchase intentions (r = .42, p < .001). This
means that H1 cannot be rejected. However, the correlation is substantially less than
unity. Thus, satisfaction is hardly the only antecedent of repurchase intentions. As a
further illustration of this, Table 1 reveals that the mean satisfaction (2.51) takes on a
higher value than mean future purchase intentions (1.84). Given the (reversed) scales
used in measuring these two variables, it can be contended that the level of intentions is
higher than the level of satisfaction. A paired t-test indicates that the difference is
significant (t = 18.5, p < 0.001). Presumably, then, the presence of (unmeasured) aspects
such as long-term contracts and mutual adaptation serve to direct the customers towards
repurchasing.
Before examining the outcome of hypotheses H2-H4, which refer to the link
between repurchase intentions and purchase behavior, recall that repurchase intentions
was measured in the survey with a 5-point scale in which 1 denotes a high level of
repurchase intentions and 5 a low level. Thus, given the hypotheses, correlation
coefficients with negative signs are expected. This is the case for all three purchase
behavior variables, and for each of the three years. However, the association between
repurchase intentions and purchase volume (H2) fails to reach significance at the 10
percent level in 1995 and 1996. The other associations are significant at this level, but
they are indeed modest. In any case, then, H3 and H4 are supported.
With regard to the effects of the three dimensions of purchase behavior on
customer profitability (H5-H7), positive associations appear for each of the three years.
All associations are significant at the 1 percent level. For each year, purchase amount is
more highly correlated with customer profitability than the other purchase behavior
variables. This is probaly due to the fact that gross contribution margin is a function of
purchase amount.
Finally, it can be noted that significant associations between customer satisfaction
in 1995 and customer profitability in 1995, 1996 and 1997 are not at hand here.
Moreover, the (weak) associations have remained stable over the three periods. On the
other hand, repurchase intentions are significantly related to customer profitability with
respect to each of the three years. Given the (reversed) measurement scale used in the
assessment of repurchase intentions, a positive association is thus at hand between
repurchase intentions and customer profitability.

5. Discussion
5.1. Summary of the results and limitations
The framework for this study may be summarized as a linear causal flow consisting of
the following links in a temporally ordered chain: customer satisfaction – repurchase
intentions – purchasing behavior – customer profitability. Overall, the results provide
support for the hypothesized links. However, there are several limitations in our
approach which should be noted.
With regard to the measures which were used, it should be observed that only
two questionnaire items – with moderate internal consistency – were used to assess
customer satisfaction, whereas one single item was used in the measurement of
repurchase intentions. It cannot be ruled out that a more sophisticated measurement
approach (with more scale items) would have resulted in higher correlations, given that
low reliability may attenuate correlations between variables (Peter 1979).
Turning to unmeasured variables, it is clear that gross contribution margin hardly
provides the full picture of customer profitability. As previously indicated, each
customer is likely to vary in terms of other costs and revenues apart from those that are
product-related. Attempts must be made in future studies to incorporate such additional
costs and revenues, and to examine how they are related to gross contribution margin. It
should also be noted that customer profitability, as it was measured here, does not take
into account what might be referred to as second-order effects of what one particular
customer does. For example, one customer with a negative gross contribution margin,
who is thus an unprofitable customer in terms of gross contribution margin, may affect
the firm’s profits positively by engaging in positive word-of-mouth. An ‘‘unprofitable’’
customer may also attract other customers by serving as a reference object in the
supplier’s marketing efforts; it may provide the supplier with highly significant and costreducing
feedback; and it may positively affect job satisfaction and morale in the
supplying firm (cf. Heskett et al 1997, Peppers & Rogers 1997, Reichheld & Sasser
1990, Reichheld 1996). To incorporate such aspects of customer behavior into a
profitability analysis is indeed a challenge for future research and business practice.
Moreover, although a positive and significant link was found between customer
satisfaction and repurchase intentions, the former variable explains only a fraction of the
variation in the latter (r = 0.42). This suggests that factors other than satisfaction affect
repurchase intentions. Early attempts to come to terms with this, albeit outside the
satisfaction literature, can be found in Fishbein & Ajzen’s (1975) discussion of the
individual’s perception of what relevant reference groups think, and in literature dealing
with variety-seeking behavior (Maddi 1968). More recently, various switching barriers
(Fornell 1992, Tax et al 1998) have received attention as factors which may moderate
the relationship between customer satisfaction and repurchase intentions. Moreover, in
markets where both suppliers and customers are firms or other organizations, it can be
expected that relationship-related factors, such as product and process adjustments,
logistical co-ordination, knowledge about the counterpart’s strengths and weaknesses,
personal confidence, and legal contracts serve to create long-term relationships between
customers and suppliers (Hallén et al 1991, Mattsson 1987). An additional potentially
moderating variable is relationship commitment, in the sense that the satisfactionrepurchase
intention link may be strongest among customers who are highly committed
to the supplier (Storbacka et al 1994).
Another limitation is related to the time periods used in the study. That is to say,
it is not clear to what extent the time periods have provided a proper context for an
analysis of the relationships between attitudinal variables and behavioral variables.
However, it does seem clear that attitudinal variables such as customer satisfaction do
not remain constant over time (cf. Peterson & Wilson 1992). It means, among other
things, that the timing of the survey (in terms of how much time one would allow
between the survey and the most recent experience of the supplier) deserves some
careful thought. One may also consider if the (accounting-oriented) time unit ‘‘year’’
really represents a useful time unit. In addition, if customer relationships are viewed as
investments (cf. Mattsson 1987), a period longer than a few years may be needed to
determine the extent to which one particular customer is profitable (cf. Reichheld 1996).
Furthermore, it has been assumed that the attitudinal variables in this study,
customer satisfaction and repurchase intentions, refer to the same level of analysis as the
purchasing behavior and customer profitability variables, i.e. the customer level.
However, it should be kept in mind that the attitudinal data were derived from the
supplier’s contact person in the sample firms. This person may or may not be
representative of other people in the same firm, and this person’s level of influence on
the firm’s purchasing decisions may be subject to variation. As a further source of
distortion, some of the contact persons may have changed job positions since they
answered the survey questions. Such factors may explain the modest links between
repurchase intentions and the purchase behaviors in the present study. Future studies
should therefore include more information on the potentially complex nature of the
buying center (cf. Webster & Wind 1972).
Finally, the customer-level of analysis may be questioned. It has been argued by
Johnson et al (1995) that there are several scientific reasons for studying customer
satisfaction at the market-level of analysis. According to these authors, an aggregation
serves both to reduce error in the measurement of satisfaction and to increase the
establishment of coherent relationships with other variables such as repurchase
intentions. On the other hand, a market-level analysis is hardly likely to provide valuable
17
inputs to marketers who wish to experiment with the implications of the one-to-one
marketing approaches currently in vouge.
5.2. Some implications for research and practice
This study has identified several significant associations between variables in the
customer satisfaction – repurchase intentions – purchase behavior – customer profitability
chain. The associations between the two latter types of variables should not be
surprising, since it is the actual acts by customers, not their attitudes, that affect the
firm’s performance (cf. Storbacka et al 1994). However, purchasing behavior variables,
which are related to what customers do, are commonly missing in many parts of the
marketing literature. Segmentation literature, and particularly the literature on
segmentation of business markets, is one area in which the void is salient. That is to say,
many segmentation variables have been described as candidates for the segmentation of
business markets, but they are generally related to other characteristics of the buyer than
what the buyer actually is actually doing over time in terms of purchases (cf. Shapiro &
Bonoma 1984, Webster 1984). One implication of the present analysis, then, is that
segmentation efforts may benefit if detailed purchase behavior is included. After all,
segmentation becomes necessary when variation between customers is at hand, and as
this study has shown, a substantial variation may exist in terms of both purchasing
behavior and customer profitability.
For a further implication, assume that it is possible for a firm to satisfactorily
assess each customer’s profitability. According to some authors, a logical next step
would be to engage in ‘‘demarketing’’ (Kotler & Levy 1971) or a ‘‘creative filtering
program’’ (Reichheld 1996). That is to say, once unprofitable customers are identified,
the firm would want to terminate relationships with them. This step raises several issues.
One issue is how to say no to unprofitable customers and what the consequences of this
might be. Anecdotal evidence suggests that saying no is indeed tricky, since a ‘‘no’’ is a
potential driver of bad publicity. For example, First Chicago Bank began charging
customers for doing transactions at a teller window that could have been performed on
an automatic basis. This move was meant to provide a disincentive to those customers
who tended to take up more teller-window time and money than they could return in
profits. The result? A wave of bad publicity in the press – and competitors who
advertised that no First Chicago customer would be too unprofitable for them (Peppers
& Rogers 1997, p 127).
However, an even more challenging issue – after a profitability analysis has been
carried out on the customer level – concerns how to turn unprofitable customers into
profitable ones. This would require knowledge of why certain customers behave in a
more profitable way than others. In other words, what do profitable customers actually
do in terms of behaviours which distinguish them from less profitable customers? While
the present study does not provide a rich understanding of this, it does suggest that
variables other than satisfaction and repurchase intentions need to be explored in more
depth. Examples of such variables are contractual agreements, switching barriers,
relationship commitment, purchasing policy-related variables, the level of product
adaptations and personal bond.

THE CAUSE OF MIGRATION TO THE CITIES

As it is given above the causes of migration to the big cities is economical, educational, medical, appointment and others. However, the most important one is economical cause (total average: 67.90). Therefore it can be said that especially the economical institutions, firms are facing the results of these changes. For example, while the number of people is increasing the number of employed or unemployed people is increasing, too. In addition to this with the add of the graduated people the number of potential employer goes up. So, this situation leads firms to increase the capacity of employment and to become bigger. It also causes the changes in organisational hierarchy.

In Turkey as big cities become populated and developed the system of franchising start to spread in our country like McDonalds, Pizza Hut, Burger King etc… Moreover in our country as business system develop the small firms lose their importance and as they can not compete with the big ones they bankrupted. So, it means that demographic changes have not only advantages but also have disadvantages to the firms.

In conclusion, the demographic and cultural changes influence our lives. Especially the economical area is effected mostly. However as the development of the technology continue, these changes are unavoidable.

Geostatistical simulations are mainly used for generation of equi-probable alternative realizations of mineral grade and geologic features with specified histogram and variogram. Typically, these realizations are fed into a transfer function developed as a logical equivalent of mineral deposit. By processing multiple equiprobable realizationsthrough the transfer function an equivalent number of responses are obtained, i.e. a response distribution. This distribution of responses provides a probabilistic assestment of the uncertainity associated with the input variable. In the present study, the decomposition algorithms are evaluated on this basis. First of all, the ability of the decomposition algorithms in reproducing anisotropic variograms is examined. Two transfer functions are defined; proportion and average of grade values above a specific cut off yielding grade-tonnage curves as responses. The uncertainity of grade tonnage curves is assesed by the distributions of responses for each algorithms.

2 SEQUENTIAL SIMULATION

Consider the simulation of variable grade Z at N grid nodes x conditional to the data set [z(x), =1,...,n]. Sequential simulation (Journel and Alabert, 1988; Gomez-Hernandez and Srivastava, 1990) amounts to modelling the conditional distribution function by OTIM then sampling it at each of the grid nodes visited along a random sequence. To ensure reproduction of the grade variogram model, each ccdf is made conditional not only to the original n data but also to all values simulated at previously visited locations.Multiple realizations are obtained by repeating the entire sequential drawing process. Sequential simulation starts with the transform of a vector into a vector of spatially orthogonal factors.

3 CASE STUDY

Figure 1 shows the frequency distributions of 2500 conditionally simulated values as a 4 x 4 m regular grid at a level of Kure (Asikoy) copper deposit and hereafter considered as reference values for subsequent work. The simulated annealing algorithm given in GSLIB (Deutsch and Journel, 1998) was used to force the realization to match an anisotrophic spherical variogram with nugget effect 0.3, partial sill 2.1 and range 38 m in NS direction and 12 m in EW direction. Figure 2 shows variogram of this reference data set.

Figure 2. Variogram of this reference data set in NS and EW direction

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the decomposition algorithms in the presence of anisotropy under perfect conditions. So the problem of statistical inference of the variogram functions will not be addressed here. Instead, the variogram models deduced from reference (2500 data) information are used.

As there are no economic and technical restrictions, the nine cut off values corresponding to the nine deciles of the reference distribution are used: these are; 0.46, 0.60, 0.73, 0.82, 1.10, 1.20, 1.44, 2.15 and 3.21.

Factor variograms were computed for nine cut off values. As the order of the CHSP and SPEC factors gets higher, the range of spatial correlation decreases and essentially variables for the sixth factor in the NS direction and for the third factor in the EW direction. However, the variogram of the SYMM factors does not display any decrease in spatial correlation. All the factor variograms with spatial correlations were modelled with a geometric anisotropy model with a larger range in the direction of NS (these variograms are not shown here).

One hundred realizations of grade values were generated using each of the three decomposition algorithms. For this purpose, SISIM given in Deutsch and Journel (1998) as modified in order to handle with OTIM.

Figure 3 is show variograms of the 100 realizations for each of algorithms. In these figures indicator variograms also presented as a standard check.

…………..
………….
…………

The proportion and average of the values above the nine cut off values corresponding to the nine deciles of the reference distribution are calculated first for the reference data set and then for each realization. Figure 4 show the uncertainity distribution for the preportion while Figure 5 presents the uncertainity distribution for the average.

………….
…………
Conclusions

Although the calculations that can be drawn from this study are specific to the data set studied, it is clear that orthogonal transformed indicator methodreproduce anisotrophic variograms.

Rainforests of the world
The weather in a rainforests is hot all the year round. Usually between 20 degrees Celsius and 28 degrees Celsius every day. The weather is always wet. Most rainforests have more than 200 mm of rain in a month. In Belem, in Brazil, it rains about 243 days each year. And the rain is heavy! On a rainy day in a rainforests 20 mm of rain can fall.
The Amazon rainforest is about a hundred million years old, and has more species of animals and plants than any other place on Earth. People have now cut down much of this rainforest to plant coffee and sugar. Angel Falls in Venezuela, the highest waterfall in the world, is in one part of this Latin America forest. There are different kinds of rainforests. Some are high in the sea. Mangrove swamps grow by the sea, often at the mouths of great rivers.
Before 1950, Indonesia had twice as much rainforest as it has today. Indonesia sells most of the wood from its forests to Japan and other rich countries. The Rajah Brooke’s birdwing butterflies.
Madagascar has been an island for millions of years, cut off from the rest of the world. It’s animals and plants have changed very little in those years most of them live in no other place. In Adohahela, there are twelve species of lemurs living in 760square kilometres. The sifaka, a lemur with very long legs, can jump from one tree to another and travel along way without tasuching the ground.

The kangaroo is Australia’s most famous animal. In 1988, someone found a new species of kangaroo in rainforest of Australia. Most kangaroos jump acroos the land but the Bennett’s tree kangaroo, which has strong arms and wide feet, lives in trees.
Australia’s forests are disappearing fast. How many species of animals are disappearing, too?

Why rainforsts are important?
More than half the species of plants and animals of the Earth live in the rainforests. The peoples of the rainforests have always used plants to make medicines. Today, all over the world, people use medicines made from rainforests plants. Quinine, the medicine for malaria, comes from the cinchona tree of Peru. The leaves of the rosy periwinkle from Madagascar are used as a medicine for the deadly blood disase, leukaemia.
Many new medicines are waiting in the rainforests. If we destroy the forests, we shall never find them. Rainforests trees are used to make things which we use every day. Rubber, for example is used to make many things. The fruits of many forests people have eaten them for thousands of years. Today all over the world, people eat rainforest food plants; for example coffee, tea, oranges and rice. Maize which is an important food for many people of the world is another rainforest plant.
In 1970, a disease destroyed half the maize in the United States of America. Scientists began to look for new species of maize in the rainforests. In 1987, in the Mexican rainforests, they found a new species which is stronger than other species. But we nearly lost this new species of maize, because people were already cutting down that part of the Mexican raibforest.
Nobody knows how many useful plants are already lost because people have destroyed many of the rainforests of the world.
The trees of the rainforests help the Earth’s air because their leaves use corbon dioxide and make oxygen, which we need to live.
They are also important because they control some of the Earth’s weather. Throught their large leaves, they give out water vapour which makes heavy clouds. The clouds then move to other parts of the Earth and give rain. The clouds also protect the Earth from the sun.
Today, the Earth is slowly getting hotter, and in some places changes in the weather are making life much more difficult for millions people.

People of the rainforests
More than fifty million people live in the rainforests of the world and most of them do not hurt the forest they live in. They eat the fruits that grow on the rainforest trees, but they do not cut them down. They kill some animals to eat, but they do not destroy the species.
When we cut down the rainforests, we destroy these forests people, too. In 1900, there were one million forest people in the Amazon forest. In 1980, there were only 200,000.
The yanomami live along the rivers of the rainforest in the North of Brazil. They have lived in the rainforest for about 10,000 years and they use more than 2,000 different plants for food and for medicine. But in 1988, someone found gold in their forest, and suddenly 45,000 people came to the forest and began looking for gold. They cut down the forest to make roads. They made more than a hundred airports. The Yanomami people lost land and food. Many died because new diseases came to the forest with the strangers.
The Yanomami people tried to save their forest, because it was their home. But the people who wanted gold were stronger.
Many forest people try to save their forests. Chico Mendes was famous in Brazil because he wanted to keep the forest for his people. ‘I want the Amazon forest to help all of us forest people, Brazil, and all the Earth,’ he said. A few months later, in December 1988, people who wanted to cut down the forest killed Chico Mendes.
In Borneo, people were cutting down the forest of the Penan people to sell the wood. The Penan people tried to save their rainforest. They made blockades across the roads into the forests. In 1987, they closed fifteen roads for eight months. No one cut down any trees during that time.
In Panama, the Kuna people saved their forest. They made a forest park which tourists pay to visit.
The Gaviones people of Brazil use the forest, but they protect it as well. They find and sell the Brazil nuts which grow on the forest trees.

Rainforest animals
We shall never know about some animals which live in the rainforests, because every year about a thousand different species disappear for ever.
The giant otter lives in the Amazon rainforest. It is about two metres long, an done group of otters eats more than 30,000 fish a year. There are not many giant otters now, because people will pay a lot of money for their thick fur. In the 1960s, people killed more than 60,000 giant otters in Brazil.
Tapirs live in the forests of Latin America and in Malaysia. We don’t know how many tapirs there are, but we know that they were already living in the rainforests twenty million years ago. They live near rivers, and they eat leaves at night. During the day, they stayin the river to keep cool.
The mountain gorilla lives in Rwanda in Central Africa. Mountain gorillas live in family groups and are very big so they don’t climb trees very often. They spend most of the time on the ground and they need to eat lots of leaves and fruit.

The golden bamboo lemur lives in Madagascar. It’s favourite food is giant bamboo. Giant bamboo is a deadly plant but, strangely, the lemurs eat it every day and they don’t die. No one knows why. The golden bamboo lemur was unknown until 1986.
No one knows all the species of insects in the Amazon rainforest. Perhaps there are more than 40,000 species of insects in the Amazon rainforest. The leaf katydid is one of these. It looks like the leaf it is standing on. This is a very good way to protect itself from the insect eating birds in the trees around it.

Rainforest plants
The rainforests are as rich in plants as they are in animals. The biggest plants are of course the trees. The island of Madagascar has 2,000 species of trees.
Rainforest trees grow very slowly, and they live for hundreds of years. When a mahogany tree is fifteen years old it is about fifteen metres tall. After fifty years, it is about thirty metres. It goes on growing until it is 150 years old.
Some trees grow as tall as seventy metres and some animals live all their lives in the top of these trees!
The rafflesia grows in the forest on the island of Borneo. It is the largest flower in the world. It catches and eats insects.
The quetzal is a large bird, about one metre long, but it eats only fruit. In the mountain rainforests from Mexico to Costa Rica it can find fruit every day of the year.
Other rainforest birds eat only insects. And hummingbirds drink the nectar from a flowers. While a hummingbird is drinking nectar from a flower, it’s wings move up and down about fifty-five times every second.
Many rainforest plants are in danger because people take them from the forest to sell in the shops of the rich countries of the north.
When you visit a flower shop near you, ask about the plants there. Did someone take any plants from the rainforest and bring them to sell in the shop?
The slipper orchid grows in Borneo. There are only a few of these orchids now, but in 1987, someone went into the rainforest to take one. He sold it for $10,000.

Money
Why are the peoples destroying the rainforests? There is a short answer to that question: money!
Countries with rainforests cut down about 50,000 square kilometres of trees every year, and sell the wood to the rich countries of the north. Most rainforest wood from Latin America goes to North America; wood from Africa goes to Europe; and wood from the forests of Asia goes to Japan. Japan does not cut down the trees which grow in Japan but forty per cent of all the world’s rainforest wood goes to Japan.
International businesses buy rainforests in Latin America where land is very cheap. They cut down the trees, sell the wood, and then use the land for cows.
Thousand of trees and animals have died, and forest people have lost their homes, so that today North Americans can eat eat cheap meat. Ninety per cent of Latin American meat goes to North America because it is so cheap.
All over the world, people eat 140 million tonnes of meat every year. And the rich countries of the north eat sixty per cent of this.
Many countries cut down rainforests and plant coffee and sugar which they can sell to rich countries. Not many insects and animals can live in coffee or sugar plantations because they damage the coffee and sugar.

The end
About one per cent of all the rainforest in the world is lost every year. When roads are made through the rainforests, people start to destroy the forests very quickly. Without the trees to protect the ground, the heavy rain quickly washes away the soil beside the roads.
The rainforests are rich in trees and animals, but the soil is not rich; it is very poor because it is very old and because the trees and plants contain all the good things that were once in the soil. Without the trees, the rain washes away the soil and nothing can grow there again.
Are we going to destroy all the rainforests of the world? Perhaps one day you will travel to a rainforest country; but will you see the wonderful plants and animals of the rainforest?

Reformism:
One of the most important principles that Atatürk formulated was the principle of reformism or revolutionism. This principle meant that Turkey made reforms and that the country replaced traditional institutions with modern institutions. It meant that traditional concepts were eliminated and modern concepts were adopted. The principle of reformism went beyond the recognition of the reforms which were made.

Nationalism:
The Kemalist revolution was also a nationalist revolution. Kemalist nationalism was not racist. It was meant to preserve the independence of the Republic of Turkey and also to help the Republic’s political development. It was a nationalism which respected the right to independence of all other nations. It was a nationalism with a social content. It was not only anti-imperialist, but it was also against the rule of a dynasty or of any particular social class over Turkish society. Kemalist nationalism believes in the principle that the Turkish state is an indivisible whole comprising its territory and people.

Statism:
Kemal Atatürk made clear in his statements and policies that Turkey’s complete modernisation was very much dependent on economic and technological development. The principle of statism was interpreted to mean that the state was to regulate the country’s general economic activity and the state was to engage in areas where private enterprise was not willing to do so, or where private enterprise had proved to be inadequate, or if national interest required it. In the application of the principle of statism, however, the state emerged not only as the principle source of economic activity but also as the owner of the major industries of the country.

THE VIEWS OF ATATÜRK
On the economy
As a result of Atatürk’s reforms, Turkey’s economic structure was completely changed for the better. With the annulment of capitulations, fundamentals needed to secure a national and liberal economy were achieved. Atatürk’s view of the economy of country lies in this saying: “The real master of the country is the villager”.

On foreign policy
Atatürk’s motto of “Peace at Home, Peace in the World” was rigorously adhered to, despite the fact that many national leaders at that time slipped into the politics of internal subversion, police state tactics and then into international conflict. Turkey managed to avoid both subversion at home and involvement in war.

Mustafa Kemal Ataturk’s Views Concerning Minorities in Turkey
Excerpted from “The Armenian Question 1914-1923″ by Mim Kemal Oke
________________________________________
Mustafa Kemals’s views concerning international relations were based upon realistic foundations. However, this should not be interpreted to mean that this Turkish leader employed the Realpolitik in foreign politics like the decision makers of the Great Powers. Mustafa Kemal Pasha’s starting point n relations among the states was humanitarianism, as was the case with his approach to life. Respect for international law and human rights, and recognitoin, on a global basis, the freedom of oppressed nations to determine their own fates, were among the principles that governed his world politics. However, Mustafa Kemal Pasha did not believe that a state could preserve either its life or sovereignty in the world system based on the mercy or other positive feelings of the other actors. [1] It was because of this conviction that he was sure that the liberation of Turkey could not be tied to the Wilson principles. It was again due to this reason that he opposed the idea of a mandate. A military genius like Mustafa Kemal who had fought against internal and external enemies on many fronts during the First World War was certainly not incapable of observing the methods employed by the Great Powers in an attempt to dismember the Ottoman Empire and to pinpoint these tools of foreign politics. As a matter of fact, he said the following concerning this subject:
The internal front is the important one. This is the front consituted by the whole country and nation. The apparent front is the one the army faces. This front can be torn down, can be changed, can be defeated. But this situation can never mean the destruction of a country. It is the collapse of the internal front that destroys the foundations of a country, that condemns a nation to slavery. In truth, “conquering a fortress from the inside’ is much easier than taking by force from the outside. In this context, it is possible to claim the existence of microbes or tools of treachery which are able to contact our very bodies. [2]
Mustafa Kemal describes as follows the position of the minorities in the Ottoman Empire which were turned into pawns in the psychological war against Turkey:
No nation has ever shown more respect than ours for the beliefs and customs of foreign elements. It can even be said that ours is the only nation that respected the religions and nationalities of the believers of other religions…These wide privalges that non-Muslims have been enjoying since the conquest of Istanbul show, and are very clear proofs of the fact that our nation is the most tolerant and magnanimous nation politically and from the point of view of religion. [3]
The just treatment of the Christian elements by our government and nation is dictated by our customs and the traditions of our religion. The fact that the Christian elements enjoy more peace and security and are more prosperous than Muslims everywhere in our country, even in the remotest villiage, is the strongest proof showing that Christians our treated justly in our country. If they had been treated unjustly with oppression and usurpation, they certainly would not have been in this situation today. Because of this, I do not think it necessary to produce another proof or reason. But it is natural and essential to prevent the evil deeds of those Christian elements who will attempt to harm and destroy our national existance when incited to do so from the outside or because they are capable of showing ingratitude to the last where they earn their bread. It is universally know that today the greatest, most powerful and most civilized of nations are resorting to much harsher and coercive measures than ours when it comes to these matters. [4]
Mustafa Kemal thus analyzes judiciously the motives of the Great Powers in collaborating with some minority elements in Turkey before, and during the First World War, and during the Turkish struggle for independence. He has referred to the results of this collaboration from the point of view of Turkish history in several statements he made:
The Turkish nation has had the right to live on these lands fo a period longer than one thousand years. This has been proven with historical records. As for the Ottoman State, it has survived for seven centuries and can rightly be proud of its magnificent past and history. We are a nation whose strength and magnificence is known throughout the world, in Asia, Europe, and Africa. Our warriors and commercial ships crossed oceans and bore our flag as far as India. Our abilities are proven with the might we once had and which was recognized by the entire world. But the intrigues of the European powers throughout the previous century at our capital, their interferences with our sovereignty through these intrigues, the restrictions they brought on our economic life, and the seeds of dissent they sowed between us and the non-Muslim elements with whom we had been coexisting in peace for centuries,… prevented us form advancing and increasing our welfare. [5]
This was the situation in the Ottoman State until the last minute: inside the country, the Christian elements enjoyed exceptions and privaleges far above those that the majority element enjoyed…The Christian elements had all kinds of private organizations with with they could work against the state, and they enjoyed constant encouragement and protection from abroad…The state and the government were incapable of preventing such support…Because some strong states were behind these destructive activities. On the one hand, these states were inciting the Christian elements to destroy the state and to obtain their independence, and, on the other, they were interfering with the Ottoman State on their behalf and were working for them. The Ottoman State was thus losing all its value and honor in the world; it was as if it were under the protectorate of another state. [6]
‘How can this state be saved?’ Like all other patriotic Ottoman intellectuals of the 19th and 20th centuries, Mustafa Kemal had also asked this question to himself and had formulated his own answer which is widely known. From among several solutoins proposed for saving the Ottoman Empire, Mustafa Kemal firmly adopted ‘Turkish Nationalism;’ he demonstrated his foresight by realizing that this was the only way out, considering both the world conjuncture and the existing conditions of Turkey; but he put his own stampt on this movement, or interpreted it in a special way, and gave it a different structure that what the Ottoman statesmen saw in it. First and foremeost, Mustafa Kemal had realized that Ottomanism had become outdated, that every Nation within the Empire had to be granted the right for self-determination in the province(s) where it constituted the majority. [7] Secondly, Mustafa Kemal’s concept of nationalism was based upon having a shared language, culture, and ideals. [8] Thirdly, Mustafa Kemal’s nationalism was based upon hakimiyet-i milliye (‘sovereignty of the nation’). From the viewpoint of external relations, ‘national sovereignty’ entailed living in freedom and independence, and internally it aimed at the government of the people by the people. [9] With ‘national sovereignty’ Mustafa Kemal thus implied freeing the country of external enemies and giving the nation its right to self-determination: ‘Transgressing upon the rights of another state has no place in our foreign policy. We are only defending our rights, our life, our country and our honor, and shall continue to do so. We recognize for all nations in the world “the right of each nation for self-determination” which is a symbol of the noblest and purest goals and thoughts and which has been created by contemporary civilization, and we demand that this right be recognized unconditionally for us as well. [10] The Turkish national struggle for independence was aimed at this goal and was successful in achieving it.
While the struggle to pass from the multi-national Ottoman Empire to the national and independent Turkish State was being waged, Mustafa Kemal determined as follows the Minorities Policy of the Nationalists: ‘The tule of law, the absolute integrity of which must be firmly depended by the nation, becomes especially sensitive with regard to two points. The first one is the absolute and full independence of the state and nation. And the second one is refraining from sacrificing in the motherland the majority to the minorities.’ [11] With this second point, Mustafa Kemal must have wanted to emphasize that national sovereignty did not only mean taking from a privaleged group and giving it to the nation, but that it was also necessary to end the supremacy of a group of minorities which was ruling over the majority in the country with a series of regulations like the capitulations which had given them special privaleges. As a matter of fact, the Turkish national struggle for independence had largely been fought against the Armenians in the East and against Greece and its Turkish Greek accomplices in the West. In order to prevent such events from recurring, Mustafa Kemal emphasized with the following words as early as 1921 that the Turkish youth has to be prepared against propaganda campaigns that might be carried out in the future by foreign powers among the minorities in Turkey: ‘We must instill in our children and youth especially, the need to struggle against all foreign elements which conflict with our existence, rights and unity, and to defend fervently and at all costs the nationalist ideas with full faith against all opposing ideas.’ [12]
In short, Mustafa Kemal Pasha had the attitude present briefly above towards separatist and destructive elements. It would be interesting to see his views during the national struggle for independence towards non-Muslims who consituted islands of minorities in Turkey. He expressed these views in the telegram he sent to the army commanders shortly after he landed in Samsun. Mustafa Kemal remarked that all the relations with the outside world were going to be cut off for a while with the beginning of armed resistance to the enemy which had invaded the country, and then emphasized the following point: ‘The humanitarian treatement that you will show during this period to the Christian people living in our country will be of great value. Making it possible for the Christians, who will not be under the protection of any foreign government to lead their daily lives in peace and security, will constitute a very definite proof of the natural capacity of our race to be civilized. [13] During the intial years of the Turkish struggle for national independence, a foreign correspondant asked Mustafa Kemal if there was any truth in the rumors to the the effect that the Nationalists had some feelings against the non-Muslim elements. Mustafa Kemal’s answer was as follows: ‘First and foremost, I should like to point out that the organization of the nationalists has no negative feelings toward the non-Muslim elements. Although actual events have demonstrated that some of the non-Muslim elements nourish harmful tendencies which could even lead them to resort to some provocations and actions against our state and nation, it can be hoped that they have begun to feel that they cannot achieve anything by such behavior in the face of the calm and seriousness with which our nation, certain of its rights, has countered them. In that case, there will remain no reason for friction. Providing their rights fully as subjects and establishing a balance and harmony among all elements will be considered as one of our major goals. [14] The propaganda in Europe that the Turkish nationalists were oppressing minorities, was so intense that the Vatican wrote to Ankara to intercede on behalf of the Christians. In the telegram dated 12 March 1921 he sent in response, Mustafa Kemal emphasized three important points. These were: (a) ‘Providing security and welfare for all the people in our country without any discrimination on the basis of race or religion is an obligation we feel on account of our humanitarian feelings and the distinguished religion of Islam.’ (b) ‘That Armenians and Greeks living in Anatolia were entitled to live perfectly happy and in prosperity, free of any kind of attacks as longs as they did not oppose the orders of the administration and the national actions, was a principle that was always obeyed.’ (c) ‘Although our enemies who have invaded parts of our country have been constantly subjecting until now our national brothers deprived of all means of self defense to all kinds of damages, plunder, murder, and deportation, all the non-Muslim elements under the administration of the Grand National Assembly are living in peace and security under the protection of our laws and arms. [15]
What was the status of the minorities going to be after the new Turkish State was founded on national principles? Mustafa Kemal provided the answer to this question as early as the National Pact: ‘The rights of the minorities will be guaranteed by us within the framework of the principles contained in the treaties made by the victor states, some of their allies and their enemies, provided that the Muslims in the neighboring countries will enjoy the same rights.’ [16] Similarly, it was stated in the Declaration of the Sivas Conference that ‘All the rights and citizenship of all the non-Muslim elements are guaranteed, but these elements will not be granted privilages which conflict with our political independence and social balance.’ [17] After the Republic was declared and laicism was adopted as one of the fundamental principles of the state, non-Muslims were completely integrated in the the Turkish social life. Then, Ataturk expressed as follows his view concerning minorities: ‘Now that our Christian and Jewish citizens ahve freely united their fate with that of our nation, regarding them as foreigners and nourishing negative feelings towards them is incompatible with the noble nature of the civilized Turkish nation. [18]
Thus, to summarize, in accordance with the principle of ‘Peace at Home, Peace in the World’ and in part in accordance with the theories related to the interaction of between internal politics and foreign politics, Mustafa Kemal thought that some foreign states may want to use some elements inside the country to achieve their goals concerning Turkey. He knew the difficult situation the Ottomans were left in because of this method, and thought that attempts might be made in the future to use the same strategy in the national Turkish State. Consequently, he believed it was essential to take all the necessary measures to prevent the Great Powers from attempting to use this method ever again. It was because of this that he demanded the Turkish delegation which went to Lausanne to make the world accept the abolishment of the capitulations, and cautioned it to be prepared against letting this system of exploitation to continue hampering the Turkish nation under new names and in new forms. Furthermore, it was again because of the same considerations that he believed a population change was necessary for the establishment of a homogeneous Turkish state. [19] Furthermore, according to Mustafa Kemal, the patriarchates, ‘…which were centers of malice and treachery, which sowed seeds of strife and discord in the country, citizens…’ had to be sent out of the Turkish lands. [20] However, in

The Association for the Monetary Union of Europe (AMUE) was founded in 1987 by European business leaders who agreed on the objectives of a common currency and monetary stability for the success of the Single Market.

The AMUE is a private sector non-political group which is active in all 15 Member States of the European Union. Its headquarters are located in Paris. The approximately four hundred companies and banks which are members of the Association globally employ nearly 9,000,000 people. Small and medium-sized companies participate in the activities of the AMUE most often through professional organisations such as the Federations of Dutch, Greek and Swedish Industries, the French and Spanish Chambers of Commerce, the Belgian, Irish, Italian and Spanish Employers’ Confederations, as well as their European umbrella organisation, UNICE.

The AMUE is a non-profit organisation financed by yearly contributions from its members and through partnerships:

• founding members may join at any time; their particular support is highlighted in publications, public conferences, seminars and other AMUE activities;
• active members benefit from all services of the Association;
• subscribers receive AMUE documentation, but may be invited to share expenses when participating in activities;
• partnerships include contracts with public authorities such as the European Commission and Parliament, or governmental bodies.

Making the euro a success

Making a success of the euro, and contributing to a cost-effective transition to the new single European currency, have long been the central objectives of the Association for the Monetary Union of Europe.

In the years following its foundation in 1987, the AMUE was instrumental in convincing politicians of the need for monetary and exchange rate stability, a single European currency and a definitive deadline for the start of Economic and Monetary Union.

From 1992 to 1998, the Association played a very active role in establishing the credibility of monetary union, in improving the awareness of governments and Community institutions of the practical steps needed to introduce the single currency, and in facilitating the preparation of businesses for the euro. Among its main activities, the AMUE participated in official expert groups and helped to formulate the final transition scenario, organised numerous workshops on corporate preparations for the euro, took part in thousands of information seminars on the issue and wrote and distributed millions of practical preparation guides. During this second phase of its existence, the Association also published a number of academic studies and reports which helped to counter euro-scepticism and demonstrate the long-term sustainability of the euro.

Now the Economic and Monetary Union has entered a new phase during which its main challenge is to ensure that it yields all of the benefits expected of it by companies, banks, workers and consumers. The AMUE can play a very constructive role during this phase in contributing to the success of EMU by:

• assisting the corporate sector with the transition to the euro,
• facilitating access to EMU for late-comers, from the European Union and future member states,
• suggesting measures for the stability of financial markets, especially in transatlantic relations, and in countries which are candidates for European Union membership – a new area of activity for the AMUE.

The AMUE is uniquely qualified to contribute to the achievement of these goals:
The Association has an exceptional consultation network stretching across the European Union, and can easily draw on the experiences and expectations of the large businesses, banks and business organisations which are its members. All agree on the necessity for monetary stability and fair competition world-wide, as a means to increase productive investment and economic growth.
They are leaders in their industry and exercise a strong influence on colleagues and smaller businesses. The strength of the AMUE lies in the long-term co-operative commitment of its members in Europe.
The Association is recognised as a strategic European corporate think tank, with the capacity to suggest precise actions to the corporate sector and to governments. Many of the arguments which led to EMU also apply to greater stability in international monetary relations.

The AMUE in action

The AMUE will continue to assist in preparations for the euro at all levels, through its efforts to:

• Facilitate the cost-effective preparation of companies for the introduction of the euro by means of working groups, seminars, a monthly newsletter and the documentation made available on the AMUE web site http://www.amue.org. Actively liaise with public authorities to define practical strategies and solutions for the changeover.
• Develop benchmarking for companies’ preparation through the euro-files website reserved for AMUE members, and in particular identify potential bottlenecks.
• Facilitate timely preparation by retailers and the tourism industry, and foster the acceptance of the euro by consumers.
• Promote monetary union objectives in Denmark, Greece, Sweden and the United Kingdom to encourage their membership of EMU. Facilitate the understanding and the early preparation for the euro of companies in these countries, so that their transition phases may be shortened.
• Inform the business community in Norway, Switzerland and countries which are candidates for European Union membership. Organise events outside Europe to increase awareness and facilitate the early use of the euro world wide.

The international dimension of the euro will modify the global environment and have a wide-reaching impact on world financial markets. It will create opportunities as well as new responsibilities, as the economic weight of the European Union is comparable to that of the United States. « Benign neglect » will not be the appropriate response to this new situation. So the AMUE will now become actively involved in this international dimension and will:

• Develop a dialogue with US and Japanese businesses in order to prevent excessive fluctuations of the dollar/euro/yen exchange rates. The AMUE already counts a number of American and Japanese-owned companies among its members.
• Investigate how to facilitate the stability of the euro’s exchange rates with other European currencies, for the benefit of the whole region and the enlargement of European Union.

A way out of of the crises

Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) will make a major contribution to improving Europe’s economic performance. Low growth, high unemployment and the need to reduce an ever growing debt burden are not due to ‘Maastricht’. They are the long term consequences of earlier policies, which have been aggravated by exchange rate instability in the single market.

The Maastricht Treaty provided a road map for the unification of the currencies of European Union members. But unification requires that monetary policy be operated by a single monetary institution, and many operational issues must be addressed.

THE MAASTRICHT TREATY establishing the European Union (EU) requires EU members to satisfy a number of criteria before joining the economic and monetary union (EMU). ). With the start of EMU, expected in 1999, the currencies of participants will be irrevocably locked and, in time, replaced by a single currency, the euro.

A single currency has to be managed by a single monetary institution. The monetary authority for the system–the European System of Central Banks (ESCB)–will be made up of the European Central Bank (ECB) and the national central banks (NCBs) of the countries that participate in EMU. To pave the way for a European central bank, the European Monetary Institute (EMI) was set up in 1994. Its responsibilities include developing the framework for monetary and exchange rate policy, the ESCB’s operational rules and procedures, and the statistical database; preparing the groundwork for issuing EU banknotes; and promoting efficient payments across countries’ borders. The EMI will be replaced by the ECB when a decision is taken to move to economic and monetary union.

Maintaining price stability will be the ECB’s primary objective, but the Maastricht Treaty defines only in general terms how the ECB should operate: there should be open markets with free competition; the ESCB cannot finance public deficits or buy government securities in the primary markets; and the execution of its operations should be decentralized so that recourse can be made to the NCBs “to the extent deemed possible and appropriate.”

The EMI has been focusing on monetary policy strategy, procedures, and instruments. Operating monetary policy will require a uniform stance throughout the monetary union, defined as the equality of interest rate levels in the EMU interbank market. To make this work, monetary policy formulation has to be centralized; instruments and techniques should be harmonized so that monetary policy signals are uniform across countries; and sufficient possibilities for EMU-wide arbitrage should be available so that interest rate changes can be transmitted quickly and uniformly throughout the monetary union. This last condition requires, at a minimum, a same-day EMU-wide payment and settlement system to support wholesale transactions.

Conclusion

The prospect of the EMU has led the EU central banks to put substantial efforts into examining the optimal design of instruments to operate a market-responsive monetary policy. This is taking place against a background in which the conditions of operating monetary policy are very different from those of even a few years ago: financial liberalization, facilitating the movement of financial flows; information system developments, enabling policy signals to be transmitted instantly across entire regions and across financial sectors; a deeper understanding of the implications of central bank independence and price stability as the primary policy objective; and finally, the increasing recognition of the interdependence between the effective operation of monetary policy and an adequate payment system infrastructure.

Although there is no decision yet as to whether a monetary aggregate should be used as an intermediate target, it seems to be agreed that short-term interest rates should be the operational target. The ECB will operate on this target using some combination of reserve requirements, standing facilities, and OMOs (Open Market Operations). The relative emphasis placed on these instruments is likely to depend on a number of factors:

• the degree to which it is held that the ESCB can rapidly establish its credibility by adopting essentially the same instruments as are at present used by the country considered the most successful in its monetary policy in the EU–generally regarded to be Germany;
• the degree of concern over the various possible distortionary effects of reserve requirements. The more these matter, the smaller the emphasis likely to be placed on this instrument;
• the nature of the signals the monetary authorities wish to give to the market–if they wish to give continuous signals, they may rely on OMOs; but if they wish to limit market signals to discrete administered changes, they might seek to establish an interest rate corridor and intervene primarily by moving the bounds of the corridor; and
• the desirable degree of decentralization–if decentralization has a high priority, this may point toward a self-stabilizing system where OMOs may be undertaken rather infrequently.

The development of a pan-EU payment system is an integral part of the preparation for the EMU. Considerable work has been undertaken to develop RTGS systems in the member countries and to link these national systems. A number of issues are under consideration, including remote access and the degree of harmonization needed in the operating procedures of the pan-EU payment system.

These discussions are likely to have important implications for the conduct of monetary policy in other countries too. For instance, the Maastricht Treaty’s provisions on central bank independence are already influencing central bank laws in other parts of the world. The resultant withdrawal of some EU central banks from their traditional function of acting as banker to the government may also come under wider consideration. The development of the RTGS system is likely to spur the development of such systems in other countries, in parallel with work done in wider groupings of countries such as the Group of Ten. Decisions reached on the choice of monetary instruments are likely also to have a considerable influence well beyond the countries of the EU.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

www.mfa.gov.tr

www.globalexchange.ie

www.europeanmovement.org

www.worldbank.org

www.amue.lf.net

www.cato.org

Housing Demand = ƒ (Y, P, i)

Y, income of the household
P, price of housing
i, mortgage interest rate

h = b0 + b1 Y + b2 P + b3 i …………………. bn: parameters

According to the linear relationship of housing demand, the income elasticity of demand and price elasticity of demand are calculated by taking the partial derivative of this linear function.
ehy = b1 Y/h
ehp = b2 P/h

The function of housing can also be denoted as a log-linear relationship.
h = d0 Yd1 Pd2 id3
log h = do + d1 log Y + d2 log P + d3 log i
According to this, the elasticity of demand with respect to income and price would be
ehy = d1 and ehp = d2

Most of the studies show that the income elasticity of demand for renter households is below that of owner households.

We can explain housing demand by dividing it as spatial and non-spatial housing demand. Non-spatial housing demand is the demand aroused from new completions. Housing production consists of both new completions and the conversion of the existing stock. Therefore non-spatial housing demand can be formulized as:
STt – STt-1 = δ (STt* – STt-1)
STt; actual stock
STt – STt-1; annual additions to the stock
δ; adjustment factor ……….. 0≤δ≤1
STt*; desired stock

Ct = ƒ(STt* – STt-1)
Ct = ƒ(Y, P, N, ……, STt-1)
Ct is determined by the information on occupancy permit

Here, quality is kept constant and the variables are net household formation, level of incomes, availability of substitutes, and the prices of other goods and services.

There are two ways of measuring housing demand elasticity:
 Time series data
Macro-economic variables such as housing expenditure, size, prices, income levels, etc. are used
 Cross-sectional data
Questionnaires are used, for example you choose a sample location and assume that tastes and preferences are the same but only income changes
While considering two goods, we have a utility function which shows the combination of the two commodities that provide the same utility. We also have a budget constraint line that is why we assume that income is constant and taste & preferences are constant.

Demand function characteristics between developed and underdeveloped countries is that income elasticity of demand in developed countries is closer to 1, however for underdeveloped countries it is closer to 0.5.

Spatial housing demand is concerned about how the households’ housing demands change with respect to distance from the CBD. Here, our assumptions are:
 Only one member of the family works
 All employment is at the CBD
 Unit transportation cost is the same throughout the urban space
 Price of z (other goods and services) is constant throughout the urban space
 Price of housing decreases with distance from CBD

Y = Ph h +Pz z + T
M = Y – T = Ph h +Pz z
£ = u(h, z) –λ(Ph h +Pz z – M)

By taking the partial derivative of this function, it is possible to calculate the change in consumption of housing according to the change in distance.

According to “Schwabe’s Law of Rent” the proportion of income devoted to housing fell as household income rose. While calculating the housing demand it is important that permanent income is taken into consideration. The use of permanent income will produce a higher estimate then the use of current income, since transitory income can both be positive or negative.

1. Objective :
amplitude,frequency and phase measurement by using an oscilloscope.
a)amplitude measurement:
The peak-to-peak amplitude of a displayed waveform is very easily measured on an oscilloscope .İf we see the wave on the oscilloscope,we must count the vertical divisions of the waveform on the screen of oscilloscope.It is very important to check that the central vernier knob on the VOLTS/DİV. Control is in its calibrated (CAL) position before the wafeform ampliturdes.
The peak-to-peak voltage of a waveform is measured by multiplying the VOLTS/DİV setting by the peak-to-peak vertical divisions occupied by the wafeform.The time period is determined by multiplying the horizontal divisions for one cylcle by the TİME/DİV setting.

The peak-to-peak voltage formule on oscilloscope is;

Vp-to-p=(vertical p-yo-p divisions) x (VOLTS/DİV)

b)frequency measurement:
The time period of a sine wave is determined by measuring the time for one cycle in horizontal divisions and multiplying by the setting of the TİME/DİV control:

T= (horizontal divisions/cycle) x (TİME/DİV)

The frequency is then calculated as the inverse of the time period. Here again,before measuring the time period of the wave,it is necessary to check that the central vernier knob on the TİME/DİV control is set in its calibrated(CAL) position.

c)phase measurement:
The phase difference between two sine waves may be determined by firstr calculating the horizontal degree/division for one cycle.This factor is then multiplied by the horizontal divisions between commencement of the cycles.

Phase Difference Phase Difference = (phase difference in division) x (degree/div)
2. Apparatus :

- C.A.D.E.T. experiment kit,
- Scope,
- Function generator,
- BNC cable (2 pieces),
- Resistors: 1k , 3.3k , 4.7k, 22k ,
- İnductance:33mH

3. Procedure :

-We made sure that X-Y button of the scope has depressed (look app-2,scope front panel,no.5) then turn it on,
-At the time we connected the probe the 2V and 0.2V calibration terminals of the scope (look App.-2,scope front panel,no.19) ,we observed and sketched the signals seen,
-We set the range switch to the squarewave and we sketched the signals seen,
-We set up the resistive network shown in fig.4.1 and by conecting the probe and its ground to A,B and C nodes observe and sketch the signals,we recorded the voltages on the resistors. Then we applied the input voltage from the 6 Vrms transformer of the C.A.D.E.T,
-and we adjusted the power supply to 12V dc on the C.A.D.E.T. and repeat the same procedure.we maked sure that the dc button of the scope is pressed( look App.-2,scope front panel , no.22 or 35),
-then we adjusted the output of the function generator to 25Hz sine wave. We applied the 6Vrms output of the C.A.D.E.T. transformer to the channel-1 nd the output of the function geneator to the channel-II of the scope.
-We pressed the X-Y button of the scope,we observed and sketched the lisajeaus patterns.We repeated same procedure when the function generator signal is 50 and 100Hz.
-We set up circuit shown in fig.4.3. We adjusted then output of the function generator to 1v peak-to-peak and 1kHz sine wave. That time we observed and sketched the lisajeous pattern(like in fig.3.4) and finally we computed the phase shifts on the 1 kohm resistorwith the expression given in fig.4.4.we repeated the same procedure when the signal is 2.5 and 10 kHz.

4. Schemes of the circuits :

5. All the signals observed in the experiment:

6. Homework:

i. In the network shown in fig. 4.1 is there a phase shift on the resistors?why or why not?
ii. Calculate the errors between the values you have found in the experiment and in the pre-lab. for the circuits in figs. 4.1 and 4.3,
iii. Write the reasons for the differences between the computed and measured values.

a)There isn’t any phase shift on the resistors in the network shown in fig. 4.1 ,because there are only resistors in this circuit and the resistors don’t make phase shift.

The king can not act alone; his actions in political sphere must be sanctioned by a minister. In the case of disagreement a minister can be dismissed by the king, or the minister can resign. Ministers are appointed by the king generally from members of parliament. Since World War I the government has been headed by a prime minister who coordinates government policy. The number of ministers varies; they have equal rights. The government must rely on a majority in parliament. If it has not a majority , it ordinarily resigns and if no other government is acceptable, parliament dissolve and general elections must follow within 40 days.

The king is commander in chief of the armed forces, declares war, makes peace and concludes trade treaties. Treaties that may entail burdens for the state or for Belgians individually take effect only after they have been ratified by parliament, signed by the king and published in the Moniteur Belge. On the death of the king and until the heir to the throne has taken the oath before parliament, the royal prerogatives are exercised by the cabinet council under the responsibility of ministers. If the king becomes unable to reign the cabinet council exercises his prerogative pending the elections of a tutor or a regent by the assembled chambers.

The organization of the senate is complex. The number of members elected directly equals half the numbers of the members of the chamber of representatives who are elected by the same electorate. The candidates must be at least 40 years of age. A number of senators, one to every 200.000 inhabitants, are elected by the provincial councils by proportional representations. The directly elected and the provincial senators co-opt further members, their number being half tat of the provincial senators.

The chamber of representatives and the senate have equal powers. Bills may be introduced in both. Before being signed by the king they must have been passed in the chamber and the senate. Speeches can be delivered in French or Dutch, this being facilitated by an interpreter system with earphones.

A court of accounts, the members of which are appointed by the chamber of representatives, has authority to control all the operations of the treasury as well as the revenue and expenditure of provinces. It sees that the budget is not exceeded, and that funds are not transferred from one authorized purpose to another.

2. Local Government: the constitution recognizes the existence of nine provinces: Antwerp, Brabant, West Flanders, East Flanders, Hainaut, Liege, Namu and Luxembourg. These provinces and their communes are the principal units of the government . local authorities administer affairs under the control of the central government through the minister of the interior but posses a considerable amount of autonomy. The executive head of each province is the governor, who is selected by the king on the advice of the minister of the interior. The governor transmits instructions from minister of the interior to the communal councils and in general holds a watching brief for the central authority. He is also responsible for the execution of the provincial councils decisions on the public services coming within his competence.

The legislative power of the province resides in the provincial council, which is elected by parliamentary voters for a term of four years. The main duties of the provincial council are voting the budget and looking after such services as highways, drainage and education. The working administrative body within the province is the deputation permanente, a core of the council elected by its own members. The body meets frequently under the presidency of the governor, whom it also advises; it can not be suspended or dismissed by the central government.

The province is divided administratively into districts, of which there are 41. In every district there is district commissioner who supervises communes of fewer than 5.000 inhabitants. The municipality, of which there are 2.663, is the basic unit of local government and there is a uniformity throughout the country in the details of its administration. The administrative power is vested in the burgomaster, the college of the burgomaster and aldermen, and communal councils. The burgomaster is nominated by the council and appointed by the king, and is usually a member of the council. He holds office for a period of six years, which may be renewed. The communal council also serves for six years and has the duties of voting the budget, of organizing police, public institutions and services and of administer in public property. It is not responsible to any superior authority, but any decrees which overstep its powers can be annulled and its budget must be approved by the governors and the king. The executive power of the council is delegated to the burgomaster and the collage of salaried aldermen, of which the burgomaster is president.

3.Political Parties: the Social Christian, Liberal and Socialist parties are often called the constitutional parties. The first two existed when Belgium became independent, although they were not organized. The liberal party was founded in 1846 in Brussels. The Catholic party took shape at a congress at Mechelen in 1863. The Belgian Workers party was created in 1885. The present denominations Social Christian party and Belgium Social party were introduced after World War II.

The Social Christian party is an amalgam of land downers industrialists, middle classes, peasants and workers linked by their devotion to the Roman Catholic Church. The farmers, through the Boerenbond with about 300.000 members, exercises a great influence and are responsible for the protectionist agricultural policy. Since World War II the influence of the Roman Catholic trade unions has been predominant in the party, which is stronger in the Flemish than in the Walloon area.

The Socialist party recruited its first adherents among the textile workers in the Ghent region and the miners and metal workers in the Walloon industrial centres. After World War II the party gained some support among intellectuals and even among the farm workers, and aimed at overtaking the Social Christian party, the socialist in the 1950s did not press for nationalization of industries and preferred forms of co-operation between private management and local or provincial authorities.

4.Taxation: Income tax is levied at a rate of up to 35% of earned income with separate taxes on unearned income, on real property and personal complementary tax. In addition there are customs and excise duties transfer tax, stamp duties and estate taxes. Local governments are also authorized to levy taxes.

5.Welfare Services: Social welfare in Belgium is operated under law passed in Dec. 1994, amplified and extended by subsequent bills and decrees. The services are administered by the central National Office of Social Security, which collects contribution from both employers and employees, and distributes sums to various national institutions dealing with family allowances, health, old age and holidays with pay, the state contributes only to old age pension schemes.

6.Justice: The Belgian constitution provides that the judicial power can be exercised by courts and tribunals in the name of the king. The legal system itself is to a large degree patterned upon that of France. The administration of justice is centralized under the control of a minister of justice; there is a codified body of law.

DESIGN AND MANUFACTURE PROCESS
When we started working on the personal computer oscilloscope we first needed an excellent A/D converter. The first one we tried was a complete mistake. The problem with this integrating converter was that its sampling frequency was really slow (4Hz), which only allowed us to look at frequencies under 2Hz, and even those waveforms were ugly. Then we decided to put in a really fast 250Mhz, but we could not get that converter to work. The 250Mhz converter was very difficult to work with, for it required a lot of precision biasing. So, we installed the final converter (70kHz) which isn’t the greatest converter, yet it was easier to work with and sampled at a high enough rate for this particular project.
While working on the proper A/D converter, we began the computer interfacing process. This process required a good I/O card and Visual Basic programming to read the card. This process was ever building in the project designing, we simply kept including extras in the program for ease in operating. The I/O card was easy to decide on because it provided us with the ability to upgrade and it was programmable for; read, write, or bi-directional. Also, the I/O card had the necessary amount of bit locations to be used in our bi-directional interface programming.
One problem that we found with this system was that we could only input data with maximum voltage of 3V, otherwise the A/D chip would burn up. So, in order to save the chip we put in 2.7V zener clipping diodes and built a D/A conditioner. This D/A stage circuit divides the voltage down immediately from the input signal, runs it through the A/D converter, which sends it to the computer. The program then realizes how much it needs to scale the signal such that the A/D converter gives the best resolution.
And the last thing we did was the aliasing detection circuit. This circuit’s purpose was to recognize that the input frequency was to large for the sampling rate. Once this system recognized aliasing, it would send a high signal to the port and the window would display ALIAS on the graph. The circuit consisted of a frequency to DC voltage converter and a comparator.
The system was surprisingly cooperative and we ran into little complications, which allowed us to have a successful working model, and a system that basically simulates the market pc oscilloscope.
• FINAL HARDWARE PRODUCT
________________________________________
Analog to Digital Stage:
To display analog signal onto a digital computer, such as your PC, the continuous analog voltage needs to be converted into a discrete digital number that the computer can then take and manipulate. The conversion between analog to digital is done using an A/D converter chip. The fact that we are changing continuous signal into discrete implies that the faster of an A/D converter we have, the better we will represent the continuous analog signal into discrete digital as well as the fact that we will be able to accurately reproduce higher frequency waves. Today, two methods in A/D technologies seem to give the best speed performance.
One, is sequential approximation, in which the analog voltage is approximated by sequentially moving from the most significant bit to least significant bit and comparing the digital voltage to the analog voltage. The method works similarly to a binary search in which we do a binary search for the digital number that best represents the analog voltage. One drawback to this method is the fact that the chip must also contain a digital to analog stage to transform the digital voltage into analog and compare it with the analog input.
The second, and by far the most popular method for use in high speed electronics, is a flash A/D converter. Suppose that one uses an 8 bit converter. Then, 256 (2^8) comparators are stacked one on top of each other and the input voltage is passed through a 256 resistor network ladder. Without going into too much detail, the resistor network will distribute the input voltage evenly on each resistor and the comparators compare each node signal against a fixed reference voltage. Based on how many comparators are “on” at one time, a digital number representing the input voltage can be obtained.
In our design, we decided to use Motorola’s triple 8-Bit Video ADC (MC44250).
This flash A/D converter has the following feature which made it extremely well suited for our project:
• 15MHz Sampling Rate.
• Single 5Volt Power Supply.
• 3 Flash A/D converters on one chip. (Very well suited for future upgrades where we would like our digital scope to have two or three input channels).
Click here for schematic.

If one is to use the chip at its full speed then the ground layer should be separated into an analog and a digital ground, with enough space in between them to minimize coupling (in the above drawing the triangle represents analog ground, while the 3 line triangle represents digital ground). When running at speeds around 70KHz we did not find it necessary to worry about coupling. We were able to get away with using the same power supply and same ground for both the analog and digital part of our design. Each power supply pin should be decoupled to ground as close to the package as possible (see reference 1).
Depending on the environment in which the circuit is being built, a large coupling capacitors might be necessary in order to remove any excessive noise around the components (one environment in which this applies is when the circuit is built using a breadboard).
R1 is used for current biasing, and 5.1K is recommended for optimal performance.
________________________________________

Clock Circuit:
Our A/D converter requires a clock running at speeds up to 15MHz. In our project our speed was not limited by the external hardware, but rather by the programming language we decided to use. Hence, using a very high speed clock would not have been of much help. Instead, for our clock we used the basic astable circuit described below (see reference 2). With R1 equal R2 and C1 = 0.01u we obtained extremely good (50 % duty cycle) square waves in the range of about 100KHz.
Again, caution should be taken on where and how the clock is mounted in the circuit. On a breadboard, the high clock frequencies will cause excessive noise causing certain components to malfunction. In our setup we had to mount the clock on a circuit away from the breadboard.
Click here for schematic.

Digital to Analog Scalar Stage:
Click here for schematic

We decided that it would be nice to have the ability to measure a 100V peak to peak wave. However the D/A converter is rated for only 25V. By using the 3K and 1K resistors we made sure that we have a 25V input to the DAC when the original wave is 100V. The rest of the circuit acts just like an inverting amlifier where we are using the DAC as the feedback voltage. Using this setup we are able to divide the input signal by a factor ranging from 4 to 1024. (By the fact that we always divide the input signal one must realize that this is not the optimal configuration for a scalar. Ideally one would like the scalar to have the ability to both amplify and attenuate the input signal)
________________________________________

Analog to Digital Conditioning Stage:
Our A/D converter requires the input voltage for Vin to range from around 1.7 volts to about 4.9 volts, with an average range of about 3 volts. Moreover, since the A/D data specs did not contain any information on the input impedance it would be nice to have something that would provide high impedance to the analog input as well as shift the voltage in the +2V to +5V range.
The below circuit provides us with exactly what we need. The two zener diodes will clamp the input voltage to plus or minus 3.4V (0.7 + 2.7). Adjusting the gain on the amplifier, via R2, we can obtain a translation in the range +2.5V, -2.5V to a range of +2.0V, +5.0V. with no input wave distortion.
Click here for schematic

________________________________________
Aliasing Detection Circuit:
When sampling continuous signals caution should be taken to prevent aliasing. By definition alias is a false signal caused from beats between signal frequency and sampling frequency (see Window Display for Oscilloscope(below) : in this picture a very high frequency sine wave is sampled at a frequency lower than 1/2 its own and we see something that is perceived to be a slower frequency sine wave). In 1928 Nyquist discovered that in order to prevent aliasing the signal must be sampled at a frequency twice its own. Hence, we thought that it is only appropriate to incorporate an alias detection circuit in our PC Oscilloscope.
Click here for Window Display for Oscilloscope

The circuit below converts frequency to voltage and then using the LM339 comparator we compare this voltage with a preset voltage adjusted by R13. The voltage at R13 is adjusted to be equal to the voltage from the frequency to voltage stage when the input frequency is at the aliasing point. The comparator will be low when we are operating in the good frequency range, and high when we are aliasing.
Click here for Schematic
• C1 will filter out the DC voltage component, allowing only the frequency to go through.
• Q1 and Q2 act as two open collector high gain amplifiers.
• R1, R2, R4 and R5 are biasing transistors Q1 and Q2
• Without emitter resistors Q1 and Q2 have extremely high gain and will transform any shape ac input into a square wave of frequency equal with that of the input signal.
• C3 and R7 are used as a high pass filter to shape the square wave into spikes (still of equal frequency with the original input signal) necessary to properly trigger the 555 timer.
• On pin 3 of the 555 timer we will have a monostable positive pulse of time equal with R11 times C4 (see reference 3). As the input frequency changes so does the distance between the positive pulses (as in diagram)
Click here for Diagram

• R12 and C5 convert the output wave from pin 3 into DC voltage proportional with the initial input frequency (see diagram).
• R14 is required for the comparator to work.

________________________________________
FINAL SOFTWARE PROGRAMMING:
________________________________________
Visual Basic and Flow Chart
The Visual Basic program must accomplish the following tasks:
• Collect digital data from the A/D converter and properly display it.
• Decide if the input needs to be scaled and if so by how much?
• Write to the D/A converter a number that will properly scale the input.
• Handle the rest of the miscellaneous tasks such as:
• Provide time base control and amplitude scaling.
• Provide the ability to programmably control triggering.
• Provide support for printing the scope output
The first three tasks are tightly binded together and the correlation between them can be described by the following flow chart.
Click here for Flow Chart

Click here for Visual Basic Program

The program works as follows. Originally the attenuator divides the input signal by 256. If our input is a large voltage then the A/D converter will be able to display a clean wave, and the program follows path “a”. However, if the input signal was small to begin with, then the A/D converter will not be able to read a correct representation of the input signal. We will then see a mere “0″. The program will then find the maximum number coming from the A/D. This number will be much smaller than our threshold value and number 2 from the decision box turns out true. Therefore the program will tell the hardware to divide the input by a number twice as small as by what we were previously attenuating, and the program follows path “b” until the decision box turns 1 to be true and the program changes to path “a”.
Now suppose the we are at a nice voltage, we see a clean wave on the scope and everything is adjusted just right (we are following path “a”) when all of a sudden the input voltage either drops or increases dramatically. How will the program behave?
Well, let’s take each case one at a time. If the voltage drops bellow the threshold voltage then the collected digital data will have a number below the threshold number and the decision box turns number 2 as true and we will follow path “b” until the collected digital data is above the threshold number. Once that happens the program switches back to running path “a”.
Next, if the program is going along path “a” and all of a sudden a high voltage comes at the input, the D/A converter will read a number very close to FF-hex (please note that the D/A converter will not damage because of the zener diodes on the analog to digital conditioning stage). The number read by the A/D converter will be larger than the ceiling number and the decision box will turn out number 3 as true. The program tells the attenuator to attenuate to the maximum (we are now following path “c”). As soon as this happens the next stage the program will follow path “b” (can you tell why?).
If we were to watch the program for a while one would note that path “a” is the equilibrium path. Anything that happens our software will try to bring the state of the machine in the state described by path “a”.
________________________________________
Decision Box:
The A/D converter will always give a number between FF and 00 with 7F at equal distance between the two. Anything above 7F is positive and below 7F is negative.
By taking the absolute value we can deal only with the positive part. We divide the upper range as in the following picture
Click here for Picture

Our ADC will give the best resolution when the amplitude of the signal is between 2 and 4. (See software program on how this is solved scope55() and scal() are the functions doing this)

________________________________________
Software Triggering:
The idea behind triggering is best explained by the following picture:
Click here for Picture

• Because the time to sample the digital data and the time to display it are not equal we need to add a time delay to synchronize the graphed, otherwise the graphed data will be jumping around the screen as the screen is updated.

________________________________________
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Marketing Personal Computer Digital Oscilloscopes
Rapid Systems, Incorporated
R2 Universal Digital Oscilloscopes
A very interesting aspect of this project was talking with engineers that build these PC oscilloscopes for actual consumers. One particular place we were able to talk with was Rapid Systems. Rapid Systems was very helpful in answering all of our questions. They even provided us with a manual on the three systems, Analog to Digital Converter Chip names, and a demo disk pertaining to the actual operating window.
When talking with Rapid System we learned that their system was quite similar in block diagram layout that we designed. Due to lack of necessary time and money we were unable to meet the specifications that the marketing PC oscilloscope are running at.
The three PC oscilloscopes that Rapid Systems provides for the consumer are:
• R1000 Digital Oscilloscope (click for details)
R1000 Digital Oscilloscope
Retail Price: $1495.00
Hardware:
• R1000 outboard digital scope peripheral
Micro Linear 2261BCP (8-bit 500KHz A/D converter)
• R300 digital signal processing (DSP) interface card or
RI-12 standard interface card (both a 20MHz)
Software:
• C Assembler (I/O controlling)
• Matrix Layout (signal viewing)
Features:
• 500KHz maximum sample rate per channel
• 32k data buffer for each channel
• From 100% pre-trigger to 100% post-trigger capability
• 1 Meg ohm 30pF input impedance
• AC to DC coupling of the signal input protection to +/- 300 volts
• Software selectable gain range from 0.256V to 512V peak-to-peak
• Full analog triggering with external analog trigger input
• Trigger adjust potentiometer
• Small size case with power supply by computer
• Connect four units together for 16 channels
• Digital triggering
Data Referenced from “Rapid Systems, Inc. R2 Universal Digital Oscilloscope Manual”

• R1200 Digital Oscilloscope (click for details)
R1200 Digital Oscilloscope
Retail Price: $2695.00
Hardware:
• R1200 outboard digital scope peripheral
Own Design Successful Approximation (12-bit 1MHz A/D converter)
• R300 digital signal processing (DSP) interface card or
RI-12 standard interface card (both at 20MHz)
Software:
• C Assembler (I/O controlling)
• Matrix Layout (signal viewing)
Features:
• 1MHz maximum sample rate per channel
• EMI protected double-shielded metal case
• Self contained linear power supply
• From 100% pre-trigger to 100% post-trigger capability
• 1 Meg ohm 30pF input impedance
• AC to DC coupling of the signal input protection to +/- 300 volts
• Programmable gain range from 0.4096V to 409.6V peak-to-peak
• Full analog triggering with external analog trigger input
• Trigger adjust potentiometer
• Digital triggering on two input channels
Data Referenced from “Rapid Systems, Inc. R2 Universal Digital Oscilloscope Manual”

• R2000 Digital Oscilloscope (click for details)

R2000 Digital Oscilloscope
Retail Price: $2695.00
Hardware:
• R2000 outboard digital scope peripheral
Motorola MC10319 (8-bit 20MHz A/D converter)
• R300 digital signal processing (DSP) interface card or
RI-12 standard interface card (both at 20MHz)
Software:
• C Assembler (I/O controlling)
• Matrix Layout (signal viewing)
Features:
• 20MHz maximum sample rate per channel
• 64k expandable to 128k data buffer for each buffer
• From 100% pre-trigger to 100% post-trigger capability
• 1 Meg ohm 30pF input impedance
• AC to DC coupling of the signal
• input protection to +/- 300 volts
• Software selectable gain range from 0.256V to 1280V peak-to-peak
• Full analog triggering with external analog trigger input
• Trigger adjust potentiometer
• Outboard peripheral with a full EMI protected double shielded metal case for signal integrity
• Self contained linear power supply
• Switchable 50 Ohm input termination with warning light
• Digital triggering
Data Referenced from “Rapid Systems, Inc. R2 Universal Digital Oscilloscope Manual”

These three oscilloscopes all use C assembler for programming the I/O port described in the details. They also use Matrix Layout as the software program that allows them to design a well detailed window for viewing purposes.
Noticing the abilities of these three well thought out oscilloscopes for the PC, we now can determine what to do differently in the future. For one thing, we would like to use an I/O card that samples in the MHz range (Rapid Systems developed their own I/O card). We felt our major set back, was the Visual Basic software we used to program the I/O card and viewing window. Visual Basic is really excellent in monitoring systems or running visual programs at lower sample rates, but is absolutely terrible in running sample rates in the KHz range. The limitations of the two (interface card and software) were the main contributors to the 500Hz maximum sampling rate. Although, we were able to observe very interesting aliasing wave forms over the 500Hz range.
Although we obtained detailed information regarding material used on marketing oscilloscopes, we were unable to convince them of giving out design information. This information would have been extremely helpful in answering the more specific questions, regarding the circuit design and software interfacing. One way of us obtaining this information would be to go out and purchase one of these systems, taking it apart and analyzing it.
________________________________________
REFERENCES
(1) Motorola Semiconductor Technical Data MC44250
(2) Radio Shack, Engineer’s Mini – Notebook 555 Timer
(3) Rapid Systems, Inc. “R2 Digital Oscilloscope Manual” (R1000, R1200 & R2000)

Water Coming From Stockyard

In the stockyard water used for cooling the animals and washing the floor.

Characteristics:
BOI5=64 mg/lt
SS=173 mg/lt

Water Coming from Killing process

After killing process blood taken in a tank and first washing taken in the same tank. This output used for making chicken food.

Amount fo blood for different types of animal:
For 1 calf :13,6 kg
For 1 sheep :1,0 kg
For 1 pig :3,2 kg

Characteristics:
BOI5=825 mg/lt
SS=220-320 mg/lt
TS=1840 mg/lt
TKN=140 mg/lt
NH3=6 mg/lt

Water Coming From Blood and Tank Water

Characteristics:
BOI5=32000-44800 mg/lt
SS=3690 mg/lt
TS=44640 mg/lt
TKN=5605 mg/lt
NH3=205 mg/lt

Water Coming From Blood Tank Washing Water

Characteristics:
BOI5=1000-23000 mg/lt
SS=6000-165000 mg/lt

Water Coming From Rendering Process

In rendering process the output used as row material for some industries . For example oil used for produce soap. The waste water comes from rendering boiler and the condenser which get under control the odor problem.

Characteristics:
BOI5=2350 mg/lt
SS=1680 mg/lt
Oil=2180 mg/lt

Water Coming From Gut Washing Process

Gut washing can made wet or dry. In wet washing the output water have high concentration.

Characteristics:
BOI5=13200 mg/lt
SS=15120 mg/lt
TS=22600 mg/lt
TKN=686-1100 mg/lt
NH3=43 mg/lt
Oil=5220 mg/lt

Water Coming From Wet Cleaning of Digested Material

About 35 kg solid matter for 1 calf. In dry cleaning digested material used as animal food. If wet cleaning used 500 lt water used for 1 calf.

Characteristics:
SS=200-300 mg/lt
TS=3700-4300 mg/lt
Oil=1200-2000 mg/lt

Water Coming From Boiling of Tripe

In the boilling process about 50 lt water used for 1 calf.

Characteristics:
TS=9360 mg/lt
TKN=1100 mg/lt
Oil=5220 mg/lt

Water Coming From Meat Fragmentation

Characteristics:
BOI5=520 mg/lt
SS=610 mg/lt
TS=2860 mg/lt
TKN=36 mg/lt
NH3=2,5 mg/lt

Water Coming From Salt Process

The skin of the animals must be washed before salted. This water is the washing water of the skin.

Characteristics:
BOI5=2040 mg/lt
SS=1800 mg/lt
TS=26480 mg/lt
TKN=95 mg/lt
NH3=12 mg/lt

Waste Water Characterization at the End of Pipe

Characteristics:
COD=4000 mg/lt
BOD5=1330 mg/lt
SS=2000 mg/lt
Oil=600 mg/lt
TN=112 mg/lt
TP=38 mg/lt

Outsourcing is defined as:A strategic decision to obtain goods and services from independent organisations outside of a company’s legal boundaries;to purchase goods and services instead of making them.

When a firm considers which components or subsystems it should outsource and analyse the issue at three levels:
 strategic
 operational
 structural
What to outsource has historically been decided by the question,”Is it strategic to my business?” .If the answer is yes,you’d better keep it.If you say no,form it out.Today companies are asking a different question:
“Is it my core competency?”.If it’s not,then it’s ripe for outsourcing,whether,it’s strategic or not.For that reason,organisations are more likely to outsource application development,a function considered just a couple of years ago.

1-Strategic Issues:

The essential point most firms use in conducting the strategic analysis is to identify the major strengths of the firm and then build on them.
What is it we really do well-better than most firms?
Do our strengths lie in certain design skills,unique production skills and equipment,different types of human skills?
A through investigation of these types of questions is what many people today call identifying the firm’s existing core competencies.

Also,in this process,the company must look at the current and expected future environment in which the firm operates.

What is “core” to your business?
What is your accurate competetive advantage?
Are you willing to share information openly?
Should you outsource entire products,or just components such as raw materials or services?

2-Operational Issues:

After the strategic “make” and outsourcing decisions are completed , and as operations progress,a number of situations inevitably arise, that require additional outsourcing analyses at something less than a strategic level.

Supplier performance in the case of some outsourced items,changing sales,restricted manufacturing capacity and the modification of an existing product are a few of the operating factors that generate these needs.

We can think outsourcing as a make or buy decision.

As a general rule,from a “make” perspective,these tactical mak-or-buy situations involve items for which the firm already possesses most of the necessary production resources.

The make-or-buy possibility requiring only a modest expenditure of funds in the event of a “make” decision is the type that’s mostly encountered by supply managers.

Does your organisation have adequate capacity?
What is the ideal facility configuration?
Should you outsource the same way across all parts of the company or particularly in different markets,countries, or product lines?
Is the technology broadly known or is it proprietory?
Is the demand variable with business cycles or seasonality?
Who has the best skills and the best practises you can purchase goods and services from?
What is the turnaround for decisions required for responding to market /consumer needs or for meeting competetive threats?

3-Structural Issues:

Is there a culture match and trust between your company and outsourcing partners?
What are the desired terms and duration of the agreement?
Are intermediaries involved and should they be?
Will there be formal contracts or informal agreements?
Can true partnerships be forged,or must it be an arms-length buy-sell?
Are joint ventures,acquisitions or mergers better options?

Overview of Outsourcing

The dilemma for the outsourcing customer is,”How do I turn my outsourcing relationship into an ongoing asset?How do I make it a source of value that drives ongoing benefits to the company and the value chain?”.To answer these questions,we must first reflect on how the outsourcing industry has changed over the years,and then examine the old versus the new outsourcing model.

Most outsourcing relationships created over the first 20-30 years of the outsourcing industry were made by companies
a-)Which were in trouble (like on ox in a ditch)
b-)Which were not doing a good job in the areas they outsourced

These old-structured relationships tended to favor the outsourcer and were based on a win/lose model.The company was distressed and required a significant investment by the outsourcer.The outsoutcer then used that leverage to insist on a long contracts eith high returns,which were inherently inflexible.The result?The outsourcer wins and the company loses.

Over the last 10 years,however,the trend has changed.
Healthy and profitable companies are beginning to view outsourcing as ana essential part of their business strategy.
They are looking for outsourcers to deliver key components of data processing,supply-chain management,warehousing,logistics,human resources,accounting and other vital components of their businesses.By divesting themselves of these non-core activities,companies are realizing they can focus their energy on areas where they have the competetive advantage, differentiate themselves from their competitors and take advantage of the cost-savings from the outsourced functions.

While the reasons of outsourcing have changed,the structure of most outsourcing contracts has unfortunately not.However the new structure based on a win/win model,where the company comes to the outsourcer as an equal partner.The outsourcer is a key component of the company’s delivey structure,and they must evolve to meet the company’s needs.So rather than getting the company out of a difficult situation,the outsourcer is on integral part of an ongoing business strategy.The result? Outsourcers must add value,customers and outsourcers must develop a more equal relationship.

The Old Outsourcing Model

In the old outsourcing model,contracts are usually put together in haste.The outsourcer takes over a distressed situation in which service levels can not easily be agreed upon.Consequently,very few meaningful service levels are defined.The outsourcer provides limited information to the customer in terms of its cost for providing services,and any inquires made by the customer are given cold shoulder.The result is poorly understood relationship in which both parties blame each other for increasing levels of nonperformance.

These contracts tend to be commodity in nature and focus on a single element of a process such as the data center.Once the pricing is determined,normally at the start of the contract,it does not change the to adjust for the cost of living adjustment (COLA).For example,a company outsouces its data processing department in which it is spending $20 million/year,and the outsourcer agrees to do the same functions for less-$15 million/year.However,costs rise with inflation and increased usage.Over the next 3 or 4 years,it creeps back to $20 million or more because thre are no requirements for continuous improvement in pricing.The pricing is usually transaction oriented (per transaction),and the transactions are stated in technical terms that are difficult to relate back to the business.These contracts tend to be long term-between 5 and 10 years-and have significant early termination costs.

The New Outsourcing Model

In the New Outsourcing Model,the customer looks at the outsourcer as a long-term asset taht is a source of ongoing value to the company.As an asset,time and resources are dedicated to managing the relationship and maximizing its value.The customer’s resources are held accountable for extracting value from the outsourcing relationship.The intent is to keep the relationship for as long as it brings value-understanding taht over time new parties and new alliances may need to be formed as technology and organizations change.Therefore,customers strive for long-term relationships and align the outsourcers motivation by developing appropriate incentives and penalties.They invest in tools that can objectively measure outsourcer performance and contribution as well as foster communication.There is an interdependency between the two organizations-change in one affects the other.Therefore both parties must understand the cost drivers of the two infrastructures and coordinate changes so as not to drive additional costs into the process.Customer and outsourcer must behave as an integrated supply chain rather than win/lose adversaries.

Redefining Outsourcing:The Value Model

A White Paper by Peter Bendor-Samuel,President,Everest Software Corp.

The Value Model

In today’s world of ever-increasing competition,it is no longer feasible for an outsourcer to provide a fixed price over multiple years that does not anticipate learning curves,improvements,and changes in technology.These costs need to be transmitted through the supply chain so as to provide lower costs to the customer.Other principles underpinning this value model are:

Results are measured on an objective basis
The outsourcer is rewarded for providing value in proportion to the value that it creates
The outsourcer’s interests are kept aligned with those of the customer
The outsourcer and the customer are interdependent during this relationship-changes in one side’s infrastructure will affect the other
The relationship must change over time to reflect new business objectives,technologies,people,and business conditions.

The Old Outsourcing Model

1-)Few meaningful service levels are defined.

2-)Outsourcer provides limited information to the customer about its costs for providing services.

3-)The relationships result in a win-lose adversonal type of relationship (both parties seek to win at the lose of the other)

• The customer seek reduce the outsourcer’s profits.
• The outsourcer seek to maximize its profit structure in opposition with the customer.

The New Outsourcing Model

1-)Customer looks at the outsourcer as a long-term asset that is a source at ongoing value to the company.

2-)The intent is to keep the relationship far as long as it brings value.

3-)Customer strive for long-term relationships and align the outsourcer’s motivation by developing incentives and penalties.

4-)Customers invest in tools that can objectively measure outsourcer performance.

5-)There is an interdependency between the two organizations (change in one affects the other)

Outsourcing Team

Due to the nature of outsourcing complex tasks and projects,an experienced,multidisciplinary team will be neede.In most companies,at least three people will be needed to control an outsourcing project effectively.The team will need a leader,a purchasing expert and a technical expert.

The team leader is usually the department or project manager who is most critically in need of the specific work or project to be done.This person must identify the need for outsourcing the work,define a reason to look externally and estimate the internal costs to perform the work.This manager also needs to create a request-for-proposal (RFP) document to explain the company’s requirements to vendors.Ultimately,the team leader is responsible for the result of the outsourcing effort.

The purchasing specialist is usually a purchasing department employee who supports the team leader through vendor identification,vendor selection,contract negotiation and contract administration.This person must be adept at negotiation and identifying potential problems with a vendor relationship.

The technical specialist is a funtional department employee who asseses a vendor’s technical qualifications to perform the specified work.This person will interact with the vendor on a daily basis during the project,as well as monitor progress and act as the primary point of contact on all issues.This person must be very familiar with how the outsourced service will be performed and the potential pitfalls in its execution.

Service Types

Outsourcing services is not a universal solution every business problem or need.Many tasks are strategic to the way a business operates or is perceived by customers.Outsourcing effort must fit into a company’s vision.Once that vision is defined and a strategy is in place,a logical plan can be used to carry out an outsourcing effort effectively.

The services a business can outsource fall into two categories:Basic Services and Complex Services.Basic services are those that are task-specific,do not require detailed contracts or specifications to define,and are of a fixed duration.These services are usually requisitioned through a purchase order and possibly a phone call.Basic services are used to support lower-level organizational tasks.Examples of these services are:

Payroll services
Human resource benefit service
Testing services
CAD drowing services
Temporary employment services
Contract employee services
Cleaning and maintenance services

Complex services are the exact opposite.They usually require detailed contracts to define and significant internal resources to set up and monitor.Due to their nature,it can take months to initiate complex outsourcing services and involve many hours of labor.Examples include:
Produt development
Advanced research
Software development
Tumkey manufacturing services
Hardware development
Marketing services
Technical support
Packaging and distribution services

Outsourcing complex services is not easy, nor is it without risks. It requires a substantial amount of management time and effort to identify component vendors, select them, negotiate contracts and pricing with them and monitor them to verify that the company gets the results for which it is paying.
Outsourcing Principles

*Knowing what outsourcing is

Outsourcing means that a supplier assumes responsibility for providing some or all of an organization’s services.The phrase ‘some or all’ is important, because on all or nothing approach to outsourcing is misguided. Organizations should selectively choose to use outsourcing for appropriate services.

Outsourcing is not an excuse to wash management’s hands of a poorly managed, costly or misunderstood function. Managers should understand the costs of a function and manage its potential for outsourcing effectively. Otherwise, functions maybe outsourced for the wrong reason and likely to give the outsoucing supplier gains the organization could have repead.

*Develope and document a preliminary Outsourcing Mission, Strategy and Goals (OMSAG)statement

An Outsourcing Mission, Strategy and Goals (OMSAG)statement is a document that sums up the organization’s outsourcing intentions and the strategic rationale for outsourcing. The OMSAG statement should describe the:
# Processes to be outsourced and the broad objectives for outsourcing.
# Relationship of outsourcing to the overall corporate strategy.
# Links between the outsourced process and your company’s core competencies.
# Strategic forces that are driving your organization into a relationship.
# Expected positioning of the relationship on the Strategic Sourcing Spectrum.
# Scope the coverage (international, across business lines and so forth).
# Critical risks involved.
# Expected duration of the relationaship.
The OMSAG statement should include a value proposition that focuses on the expected value that the outsourcing arrangement will bring to the customers of the process- both internal and external.This proposition is at the heart of the OMSAG, because it helps executives understand why they want to outsource the process in question, and because it helps ensure that the outsourcer will remain focused on giving the organization what it needs.

The value proposition
In drawing up a value proposition:
+ Consider how specific target customers (internal or external) are effected- how the relationship’s product or service makes the customer more;
- Successful?
- Profitable?
- Competitive?
- Efficient?
- Effective?
- Productive?
- Satisfied?
+ Seek validation from target customers.
+ Describe explicit, quantified benefits.
+ Fix the date when measurable success is expected.
+ Assess the feasibility of reaching goals.
+ Consider the advantage of an alliance versus other approaches.
+ Strive for simplicity and elegance.

*Establishing sound reason for outsourcing / identify the outsourcing need

Outsourcing must be done carefully, systematically and with explicit goals. Companies that rush into outsourcing without fully understanding what they hope to gain are likely to find themselves mired in a contractual battle with a chosen supplier. They may also find themselves the recipient of services that worsen rather than improve.
When looking at work load and projected tasks, every company manager needs to ask: ‘ Can I , in a more cost-effective, timely or flexible manner, do this work using internal or external resources?’
There are many reasons to use outsourcing, if one of them looks like a driving reason to outsource a project or task, then an outsourcing analysis needs to be performed.Typically information needed to make the decision includes:
- Detailed description of task
- Estimated internal costs (labor, material, time frame)
- Advantages / problems of internal task performance
- Advantages / problems of external task performance
- Strategies advantages and disadvantages of otusourcing work

Managers should carefully assess otusourcing’s potential benefits, the most obvious of which include cost reduction, cash infusion, increased satisfaction and other effectiveness of organization, then the energy applied to it; can be redirected to more important tasks.
This is the first stage that any outsourcing decision should overcome. This analysis should help justify management’s decision whether or not to move forward with an outsourcing project.

*Managing the people issues

Those making the decision to outsource meet a host of people issues. The foremost of these is communication,. Although communication with employees require more effort than might be anticipated, it is critical to a successful evaluation process. Rumours must be managed at all stages. Often in outsourcing arrangements, the customer’s employees may become the supplier’s employers and individuals who feel that they have been mistreated will have the power bring systems down.

*Using competitive methodical approach

Steps in committing to an outsoucing arrangement involve the identification of a customer’s requirements, preparing and distributing a request for proposal (RFP) , examining proposals, evaluating suppliers, negotiating contracts and implementing outsourcing. The process requires component professional (legal or other consultant) input, systematic implementation and other documenting.

*Considering all stakeholders
Those who are making the decision to outsource for a customer should consider the likely impact that outsourcing will have on the organization’s stakeholders.Those stakeholders include shareholders, customers, suppliers and employees. Impact on the stockmarket in the event that the outsourcing customer is listed with stock exchange should be considered as should the impact of infudious comment about the reasons for the outsourcing decision.

*Understanding the supplier and selecting the ‘best value’ suppliers

Suppliers that offer various outsourcing services aggressively market and pursue organizations to adopt outsourcing. Although the information that such suppliers provide is often useful for establishing the types and general prices of services that might be outsourced, the actual price an organization or customer will pay is open to speculation until final negotiations relating to the specific requirements are held. The prices which are ultimately agreed, will be based on the nature of the customer organization and thus it is very difficult to compare the cost of outsourcing with one organization to another.
Identifying the vendor is critical to the ultimate success of an otusourcing project. An inadequate number of qualified vendors can lead to the work being shopped to a substandard vendor, or overpaying for the work. This phrase may also identify that the project is not a good candidate for outsourcing, due to inadequate vendors or excessive external costs.
Selection of the best value vendor is difficult. It is nearly impossible to compare apples to apples with contractor proposals. It may be beneficial to build a comparison chart or table to assist in the selection process.
When evaluating the characteristic of a well structured alliance, ask yourself these questions;

Strategic Synergy
Can the two (or more) organizations together achieve a high level of benefits?

Growth Opportunity
Can the relationship-and its befits- be expanded?

Less Risk
Does the relationship reduce the level of risk for your organization?

Excellent Chemistry
Is there a ‘good fit’ between your organization and the provider’s organization?

Clarity of Purpose
Are the goals and benefits explicit and clear?

Win-Win
Does each party benefit fairly from the relationship?

*Unreliable suppliers

Reliability of suppliers are one of the most important think in selecting suppliers. When a supplier says‘ We’ll deliver this service at the end of this week’ , the work must be done on time. If not, it reduces the reliability of the supplier. Regardless of the reasonableness of the cause, however,considently unreliable performance by a supplier is sufficient grounds for shiftting supplier or possibly reconsidering the original outsourcing decision.
Competition in most industries today is so keen that, grossly unreliable performers do not survive in the competitive struggle. And outsourcing buyers are becoming increasingly sophisticated in evaluating potential partners.

*Supplier’s specialized knowledge and research

The most important reason that a company decide to outsource a part or a service or good rather than make it itself, is the user’s desire to take advantages of the specialized abilities and research efforts of various suppliers. If you can make it better by yourself, there is no reason for outsourcing.

*Developing supplier relationship

Select by evaluating supplier capability, culture and fit. Explicitly state and agree expectations on service levels and future developments. Negotiate a situation that will be perceived as fair and equitable. Ensure key individuals and groups understand rationale and support the relationship. Specify and communicate expected performance from each patrner and how it will be measured, comparated and disputes settled. Aim for simple contract, with scope to develope the relationship. Monitor performance frequently and avoid managing supplier’s assets or accepting responsibility for their output. Restrain use of power and aim to develop trust and commitment.

Top 10 factors in supplier selection

1- Commitment to quality
2- Price
3- References / reputation
4- Flexible contract terms
5- Scope of resources
6- Additional value-added capability
7- Cultural match
8- Existing relatonship
9- Location
10- Other

*Negotiate a sound contract and statement of work

When a vendor selected, it is not enough. It’s necessary to negotiate a contract and statement of work.
There are several critical components of a good outsourcing agreement. The emphasis from the outset should not be on who wins the bestdeal, but rather on negotiating a fair and reasonable contract for both parties. Because each aspect of the outsourcing relationship is governed by the contract, both the customer organization and the outsourcing supplier need to agree on all aspects of the arrangement. IT managers must think of every possible contingency to cover in the contract.
An outsourcing contract may lost for along time and both the customer organization and the supplier must understand how the relationship will be managed throughout the life of the contract.
Negotiating a successful contract for both parties often can be an arduous process. Unlike one time vendor contracts, outsourcing contracts require a different mind set because outsourcing vendors actually are integrated into the company over a long-term period during which they become privy to inside information. That’s why it takes months to select the proper vendor. And the key according to those who have benefited from such relationships, is for a company to know its needs and goods before starting the selection process.
In addition to specifying the scope of desired services and nitty-gritty working arrangements, outsourcing contracts can also include protection clauses for arbitration, confidentiality, risk sharing and penalties.

The contract must address;
-payment, terms
-delivery schedule
-deliverables
-legal issues (non disclosure, ownership, patentability, copyright)

Key negotiating strategies: Dos & Don’ts

_ Know your needs and goals
_ Institute a detailed request-for-proposal (RFP) document to explain the companie’s requirements to vendors
_ Specify company / vendor responsibilities
_ Set detailed performance standards
_ Determine growth rates
_ Don’t use a vendor’s standard contract
_ Don’t sign incomplete contracts
_ Don’t set a reporting system for convenience
_ Don’t neglect your employees
_ Don’t ignore the vendor’s motives

*Getting expert advice

Implementing outsourcing can be difficult. Those members of the customer organization charged with the implementation should seek outside assistance from advisors who can help internal team during the evaluation and the negotiation process. It’s important to bear in mind that outsourcing suppliers have fine turned their approach and are usually aimed with seasoned staff who can overwhelm inexperienced teams.
*Technology

Use in house technology sparingly and anticipate changes that may require different technologies. Question use of hold technologies that may not meet future needs. Scan potential suppliers of new technologies. Outsource where internal unit does not have the capability to keep up with changes.

*Revising the sourcing decision

Be ready to review, revise and develop sourcing arrangements and make sure that your contract permits changes. Review the potential cost of change in the context of changing business needs. Ensure you maintain the ability to understand changing technologies and whether your partner maintains is keeping up. Do this yourself, or through a third-party.

*Moving expeditiously

To summarize, in order to effectively and efficiently implement an outsourcing project, those charged with its implementation in the customer organization should comply with the following guidelines:
a- Use a competitive process to identify the supplier and to negotiate a sound contract.
b- Keep an eye on the value of outsourcing to the business rather than an upper management’s loss of control or power.
c- Manage the process through the terms of the contract.
d- Aggree with the supplier as to its roles, functions and organization for oversight of the project before the contract is signed.
e- Manage the personnel issues through constant communication, personal involvement and expeditious decision making.

*Why is outsourcing sometimes not successful?

Outsourcing is based upon fundamental principles and , if those are applied to the outset of a relationship, the parties will most likely have an effecttive, successful relationship. If the parties enter into an aggreement that is not based on those principles, the result will be an unsatisfactory relationship and, probably an early termination of the contract.
The first of these basic principles for the buyer is to determine the scope of services and the metrics (for the performance levels)that is wanted from the supplier. This is the only way a buyer can achieve a comfort level with turning over its process to the supplier and ensuring that it gets what it pays for. This is the only way to ensure accountability from the supplier. Dictate what the services and performance levels will be. Another sure cause for failure is for the buyer not to completely describe the scope and boundaries of every component of the service. (This can lead to a supplier providing something that was not agreed upon and then changing a premium for it or the supplier not providingsomething the buyer assummed it would be getting for the price it is paying) For example, in ana outsourced human resource function, the buyer must adequately describe the scope of services the supplier is to provide ( does it include payroll, administration of benefits, procurement of new benefit options, recruiting, retirement, benefits, etc?)

Top 10 Factors for Successful Outsourcing

1- Understanding company goals and objectives
2- A strategic vision and plan
3- Selecting the right vendor
4- Ongoing management of the relationships
5- A properly structured contract
6- Open communicationwith affected individual /groups
7- Senior executive support and involvement
8- Careful attention to personnel issues
9- Near team financial justification
10- Use of outside expertise

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Outsourcing

Outsourcing is a strategic concept to be used in certain benefits to be gained through the use of this technique over continued performance of individual functions within the agency. By using outsourcing a firm transfer it’s risk and responsibility to the commercial sector. Primary goals in the transfer of risk and responsibility to the commercial sector intended to:

1. Improve the performance of any outsourced functions
2. Enhance the performance of the agency’s core functions

the goal:to measuraly increase your sales of product and improve your marketing impact through excellence in responce service and supports.

Top 10 Reasons Companies Outsource
1) Reduce and control operating costs
2) İmporove company focus
3) Gain access to world class capabilities
4) Free internal resources for other purpoces
5) Resources are not avaible internaly
6) Accelarate reenginering benefits
7) Functions difficult to manage/out of control
Make capital funds avaible
9) Share risks
10) Cash infision

Traditionally , cost reduction has been the overwhelming motivation and percieved payback for outsourcing. Today cost reduction still tops many priority lists but the goal of “strategic value” has grown to rival it. Such value can include new applications , productivity improvement, access to new technology and skill sets and process or infrastructure redesign. Increacingly outsourcing is viewed as bridge solution or reprive.
For example , legacy systems will be outsourced so that in-house staff can focus on new priorities ,such as migration to client / server computing.

ADVANTAGES

As we mentioned before,outsourcing is a strategic process and if you work with a professional partner and if you do it well , it will provide you numerous benefits.

For example thing about an otomobile company. As you know, its main issue is manufacturing otomobiles. But for many company information system (IS) departments are also so important. Because of this, the company give this task to another firm thus have an information system.

Let’s give another example. Nike’s main issue is to design trainers and sell them. That’s to say it is not working for manufacturing trainers. Manufacturing is a routine period. But for Nike, the important thing is making innovations in designs. So it make its production as outourcing. It is a global outsourcing.

The reason which makes firms to practice outsourcing is trouble and not to do a good job. It provides optimum movement ability by getting rid off its heavy body, take advantage from technology and to utilize quality professional services without adding employees to payroll.
The another aspect it impeds side parts to slow down main process from the perspective of competitiveness and make way for focusing on a single element of process. This increases the manager’s speed in solving problems , economize from costs. It reduces the need for employees to perform certain tasks that they can handle more competently. Another benefit is the firm’s ability to negotiate the best price among bidders and the change the avoid the long -term , human recources costs associated with in house operations.firms also has the flexibility at the and of the contract.

ADV ADVANTAGES
 Reduced costs and maximized profits
 Saved time and more company focus
 Improved service
 Lowered risk
 More flexibility

How does outsourcing reduce costs?
Imagine yourself an entrepreneur planning a new firm. After extencive market research , you decide to manufacture pencils. You begin selling them four five cents each. Your accountants have determined that it costs you two cents to produce each eraser. 40% of your purchase price. Another firm can produce erasers for you for only one cent each( 50% savings on erasers). Do you continue to make them yourself or do you form out this operation?
Common sense dictates the latter course. This demonstrates the principle of outsourcing; purchasing parts or hiring labor from an outside source in order to cut manufacturing costs.

The reasons that the outsourced service is less expencive than internal operatıons as follows:
1)The pay rates of the outside source , and its benefit packages are often less than those of the customer.
2) Even when the customer’s employees are transferred to the outside source as part of the agreement, their wages might be the same or even better, since they will become much more efficient.
3) The outside source has a profit motive often too obstract a concept for the departments of large internal organization to understand. Also the operations are performed in exactly the same way, for example, due to better employee motivations.
4) Outside sources are usually newer ,leaner operators paying much more attention to productive use of facilities and equipment.
5)It requares fewer people to perform the same operations faster and more accurately.
6)Managers of in-house operations are usually too close to the forest to sea the tree. By contrast, service providers are able to recognize more easily.
7)New service providers find it easy to systematically measure the operation’s delivery and quality performance. By simply reporting important performance

DISADVANTAGES

Inspite of many advantages of outsourcing , there is always a potential for disadvantages.So managers should carefully assess outsourcing’s strategy issues.
Potential disadvantages include:

 Outsourcing for the win reasons
 Loosing control of management of the resource
 Loosing personnel (knowledgable workers)who have trusted in the organization’s particular business practices and have become part of the organizational family.
 Risk that the outsourcing supplier may not be able to achieve desired benefits or may fail in providing critical ,operational and strategic services.

WHAT ABOUT UNEMPLOYMENT?

Some critics argue that outsourcing causes unemployment.Consider again our example of the pencil factory.Many would condemn outsourcing production to another firm because such action means unemployment for workers on the in-house assembly line.But what constitutes a productive factor’s proper employment?
Henry Ford developed a method of producing cars which made them more affordable and hence accessible to the avarage consumer.When this happened ,the horse and buggy industry was all but destroyed.Should the owners of horse and buggy factories be forced to remain open if there is no demand for their product?Should the government step in and provide subsidies for horse breakers ,carriage makers ,or whip and bridle manufacturers?Of course not.To do so would be to render more difficult and costly production of cars and trucks.Given the new technology ,this would be highly inefficent and unsatisfactory.

Some people are able to manipulate the market so they can thrive in conditions that would otherwise drive them out of business.Government intervention including subsidies ,bailouts and social privileges allows them to compete in a market that would not sustain them otherwise.
It is easy for intellectuals critical of capitalism to condemn outsourcing as a cause of unemployment ,without considering why the company might choose to look elsewhere or what the long-term effects might be.No one can deny that outsourcing causes unemployment ,at least initially.But the same can be said every time the entrepreneur declines to use a specific factor of production in favor of a more efficient alternative.
Nothing said above the interpreted as a blanket advocacy of outsourcing.Subcontracting is but one tool in the manegerial arsenal.Sometimes it can be profitable ;at other times it can reduce profits,as in the case where the workers already hired can do the same job more cheaply outsiders.What can be said ,however,is that if the entrepreneur is allowed to pick and choose ,the enterprise system will allocate resources efficiently .But this is all that the system of free enterprise can promise in any case.
An example: A worker in Buca municipality thinks that outsourcing creates inequality between labors they are worked without insurance payments and the wages are so low.It obviously causes social problems. Another version, the staff do not do the job effectively,so the municipality has to redo the job with its own workers. So there becomes a time consuming and increase in cost- nearly double!

INFORMATION SYSTEMS OUTSOURCING

The role of (information)technology in achieving competitive advantage has been described as that of an enabler of several business strategies such as changing industry structure ,decreasing buyer or supplier power raising entry barriers and creating new products and markets.

When technology is not considered in developing the businees strategy ,the results are missed opportunities that could have contributed to the achievement of the organization’s goals.So many large companies have found it acceptable to transfer the information system (IS)assets,looses and staft to third party vendors.

BUSINESS PROCESS OUTSOURCING

Business process outsourcing (BPO)is on an upswing.Industry analysts except that the next five years will be characterized by the sustained development at the back office process outsourcing market ,in both the number of companies that use existing ouutsourcing services and the number of processes that companies seek to outsource.

BPO:Past,Present and Future –An Interview with John Barnsley

John Barnsley ,global leader ,Business Process Outsourcing at PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP is a 30-year Price Waterhouse veteran ,trained in accounting and charged with leading the Global BPO practice since 1998 .Frank Casale ,president of The Outsourcing Institute recently interviewed the London –based Barnsley on the past ,present and future of Global BPO.
Frank j.casale:Lets start by getting you to define business process outsourcing (BPO)and,if you can ,distinquish it from information technology outsourcing(ITO).
John Barnsley:Well,I think what we are really talking about with BPO is combining the technology system and procees into a solution which would reduce both the client’s cost and increase the efficiency of that process and that adds value to the client’ organization.That’s the definition in terms of mission .Now let’s look at it in broader terms.Fundamentally,within large organizations (and any organization)you have got to manage various business processes ,finance and accounting,the HR process ,real estate processes, the applications ,the logistics and so on .Businees Process Outsourcing is about taking those processes out of the organizations and into an organization with far superior skills in those processes ,rationalizing and getting towards world-class standard .But it has to be world-class standard.
Casale:The last year or so we have really seen a lot of people talking about ,investigating and banking on the BPO phenomenon.What would you say is driving that?
Barnsley:A number of different things are all working First, the rapid changes in technology are forcing people to think about how to interact the processing system technology .That is causing everybody ton rethink how they do things .Second , there is global convergence taking place in a lot of industries both way of merger and privitization.Third,I think that the minium is going to be about getting back office costs under control.For a large number of industries,now, the back office cost is a significant proportion if not the whole of the margin of business.Let me give you a very concrate example .The best insurance companies in the word spend 3 % or 4% of their net premium income on their back office process.The worst spend 10%,12% or even 15%.That difference is the difference between a firm recognize for building stage holder value , versus on that is barely profitable.

Casale:Is it fair to say that web enablement place a significant role in BPO?
Barnsley:The web is forcing everybody to understand that you have got to look at these things on a global level .That is the whole point about the web-it is global.And it gives you almost free information globally ,so that is,of course,combining with the trend towards Business Process Outsourcing;it is forcing people to think globally about how they do process.So you are going to start with one single,globall process,then you push it back into the territory for reasons of tax or regulatory issues-but you don’t start with the territory and work up to the global;you start with the global and work down the territory.That is,of course,really difficult.It is easy to say but it is very hard to understand when you are sitting in a territory trying to think about this issue.
Casale:And it leads me to another question.The typical scenario of PricewaterhouseCoopers and a client :Is the concept of business process outsourcing ,presented /created from the PwC side,or are your clients saying ,”Hey we heard about this….Can you help us?”Where is the interest being initiated ?
Barnsley:OKEY.For a most ,the clients approach us and say,we are trying to improve both the quality of the process that we are involved in and reduce the cost at the sametime.How do we do that ?Sometimes issue is to get better systems.Sometimes it is possible that they can achieve something by interval shared service .But in almost all cases the solutions strongly focus on improving the efficiency of the process while reducing its cost and getting world-class standard .So they are bond to be thinking about outsourcing .Why?Because the plain fact is that most companies find it very difficult to get accountability for their own internal process.You can’t legally go after your own internal HR or Finance and accounting department.How do you measure it’s accountability?How do you make it accountable in terms of the process when it is an interval process?We have all struggled with that .I will give you an example:A large multinational corporation has more than 20 major business units.Every country in the world where this company is,there are 20 business units .Then they have a different accounting systems and process system for each process units,sometimes with a different IT platform ,even in the same country.I mean ,it’ just amazing.Other large corporations I know are very similar often the bigger they are ,the more likely they are to have problems.
Casale:Some of those benefits sound similar to what ITO providers tell us what are the benefits to BPO beyond ITO ?
Barnsley:Well Ithink the human resource /people dimension is very different from IT outsourcing.IT is mostly technology and hardware-but people run processes ,not machines .That is one of the key differentiators.And when you go and stand in front of a potential employee that you are about to transition in from a client firm ,and you say to him ,I have got a very simple message for you:You are no longer a cost ,you are my sales.You have moved from the back office to the front office;you have got now a career you did not have before –it is remarkable how strong that message is .You suddenly find a people starting to perform at new levels in their environment.
Casale:In the beginning ,in 1989 ,1990 everyone was typically getting tactical benefits from outsourcing .Now there is a lot of talk of strategic value add and business value add.Is it fair to say that Business Process Outsourcing has a much greater propensity to create a strategic value at them playing old fashioned IT ?
BARNSLEY:There is absolutely no doubt about it .If you relase the company from having to manage non-core process, the people than responsible for those processes are no longer inside the company ,and they can concent rate on what they should be doing.Before,the CFO is spending all the time fighting fires in the finance function replacing people who live ,and not spending any time on the real financial issues in business.The same is true in every different process.When BPO effectively implemented ,the situation is liberating to a point where people can then concantrate on the core strategy and the real strategic issues of the business process.
Casale:Looking at BPO in the world wide perspective ,what kinds of trends do you see?Where do you see it going?
Barnsley:Well,I see two or three very clear global trends one global trend is integration ,which I have already mentioned .The different silos of offerings confuses the market and the market is asking for a single integrated offering to buy rather then have to piece together the various service offering itself another related ,but slightly different trend ,is an increasing understanding that the application and the process are infact,miror images of each other .The old idea that if you suddenly in a good system you have improved the process.-Is not true,and vice versa.I can report that in just about every major industrial company in the world,people are beginning to think about business issues and outsourcing of the business process together.Particularly multi-national companies where you have got the opportunities to compare cost globally and search for ways to transport knowledge about that process globally.That is why we opened in 13 countries in the last 12 months with some sort of initial capability to respond to client’s request .
Casale:What role does PwC plan on playing in this market ?
Barnsley:We regard business process outsourcing as a logical extentions of our existing service offerings both on the systems side and on the process side .Most people associate our name with finance and accounting ,therefore, it is highly logical that we would actually bleading in finance and accounting outsourcing because that what people think of us.We have specialist in finance and accounting as a process .We understand it to it’s core.It also placed to our strength in the system side,because of the interaction in the processing system.We are fundamentally in the system business now ,in a very big way globally.We have 35.000 people in the MCS practice doing technology and ERP implementation and business implementation ;we are the third largest e-business supplier in the whole wide world in terms of implementation .And given the fact that the market is moving into integrated solutions,we can affort not to be there because we won’t get work in our core businesses unless we can offer the integrated solution –which is the operating solutions.
Casale:What would your advice be to the person who does not get or want BPO ?Why should that person seriously consider business process outsourcing?
Barnsley:Only in seeing it in action can you realize the potential.And I would say the CFO who has not been to see what was happened ,not just with us but with other suppliers ,he is in danger .One day his boss is going to say ,why have not you seen this?Why is it that people are dramatically reducing their cost of process by using e-business internet techniques and going to remote locations and standardizing system process and you have not done it yet ?Danger zone .

Overview Of Outsourcing In Turkey

In Turkey, nearly every firm simply uses outsourcing.But most of the firms do not know how they must call the work they are doing .In Turkish outsourcing is called ‘TAŞERONCULUK’.But it is not exact meaning of outsourcing.
Outsourcing is a very common trend in the USA and Europe.But also it is expanding in Turkey day by day .Many firms outsource all their cleaning and food services.
İZMİR SUBWAY CORPORATION

İzmir Subway started to work actively being registered to the trade record on the 28.03.1997.It began to structure the labor force in August 1999 ,created a top management level and a technical team with 17 staff .The staff reached
96 on the 30th March 2000
107 on the 30th April 2000
153 on the 30th June 2000
207 on the 30th September 2000
227 on the 30th November 2000
231 on the 31st December 2000
Since the 22th of May 2000,they have been training their staff very carefully and the fundamental training issues are Rules ,Emergency ,First Aid and Security.
İzmir Subway forwanded information to media ,schools and some institutions aranged travels and training programmes to create a sympathy on the 22nd May ,2000 .It has started experience travels and since then, it is been going on working .
After giving this overview ,now we are turning to our main issue ,how they use outsourcing process.
_Interview with Esin Türsen ,Marketting&Public Relations Assistant of İzmir Subway and Özkan Turgay , Financial Manager of İzmir Subway .
AXN:How long have you been using outsourcing in İzmir Subway?
İZ.SW.:Since the day we started to work .
AXN:In which tasks do you apply to the outsourcers?
İZ.SW.:We provide security with Marpa Group ,cleaning with GUTEGE and the food from Bintur and for some technical issues ,sometimes we apply to outsourcers.
AXN:How many staff do you work with totally?
İZ.SW.:Approximately 170 staff from Marpa provide us security ,we have staff over 60 from GUTEGE for cleaning services .Finally,2 people bring us food from Bintur and distrubute it to the staff.
AXN:What’s the reason for you to choose outsourcing?
İZ.SW.:Well,actually we aim to be a large organization and this force us to do everything by ourselves.Nevertheless,we have to get some help from outside .It has brought us lots of advantages such as getting rid off seniority compensation ,which means reducing the costs .For example,when we dismiss a worker we have to pay him/her a compensation.But as we are working with an outsourcer ,we do not have to pay him/her anything as a compensation .The worker does not belong to the staff of our organization.As a result, paying compensation becomes outsourcer’s duty.Another advantage is that staff is in the control of the outsourcer.In an organization the control of the staff is one of the most important tasks.If the staff is not controlled properly they may mot do the work of the organization as well as possible.In order to make the staff work efficiently with outsourcer and it does the whole task with the help of the outsourcers we can easily focus on our main job.
AXN:What kind of qualifications do you demand when working with an outsourcing firm?
İZ.SW.:It is essential for İzmir Subway is that we should choose the best supplier .That’s why we’ve make an environmental scanning and searched for other companies that work with outsourcers.As it is clear ,we try to get some references of outsourcers.We have investigated the outsourcers which the big firms work with and we have made our proposals to them .But the other way around,we have got some attractive offerings from outsourcers.
AXN:If you are not satisfied with the outsourcer’s working, which procedure you follow to deal with this problem?
İZ.SW.:Working with an outsourcer is a process that brings us numerious advantages.But there are some main disadvantages related to the performance of the staff .In this situation ,we warn the supplier and give him/her for instance a certain period of time-a month- to correct their mistakes .Despite the problem continues,we have the right to cancel the contract and look for another supplier .Nearly 90000 people use the subway everyday .In order to satisfy this crowd, we should do our work properly .So we have to control the staff strictly, although they are controlled by the outsourcer firm.We tend to be the ‘Big Brother’!.We should be careful when working with an outsourcing firm,if not,a wrong decision made by us about an outsourcer may result in a disaster.

MARPA SECURITY COMPANY

Marpa security is a leading security company which provides security services with 6 regional management offices (Istanbul Thrace,Istanbul Marmara ,Bursa,Ankara,Izmir and Bodrum)in Turkey and with 3 branches (Kazakhistan,Northern Cyprus and Azerbaycan) outside the country.Our list of long term references for which Marpa provides security services can be considered as an evidence that Marpa Security is providing high customer satisfaction.
Marpa Security offers the customers standardized ,central control of security expences (and probably reduction on the security expences ),and procedures ,post duty instructions ,invoicing ,security personnel administration services,reporting ,liability insurance etc.
Marpa Security ,while providing security services to their customers ,are also offering security systems and equipment which can be monitored constantly by the security monitoring center(Alarm Report and reaction Center)
M.Cengiz Yavçan founded Marpa Security LTD. in 1990 with government experienced personnel to meet modern security requirements of the private sector. In the decade since its creation ,Marpa Securıty has grovn to occupy the leading role in its sector in Turkey.Marpa Security,is aiming to give the highest quality security service in the sector with the experienced and highly motivated personnel ,logistics strength, training, and the capabilities of the other Marpa Group companies which were founded to support the security company,Marpa Security is the most competative and reliable security company in Turkey.
MARPA SECURITY SERVICES

Provides services for factories
Shopping centers(malls)
Business centers
Constraction areas
Free zones
Any facilities which needs security guards
Security surveillance control service
Security training,inspection and consulted
WIP and executive security
Airport security
Sea port security
Terminal security
Fair ,concert,meetings,grand openings etc. security
Subway security
Holiday villages and apartment complex security
School and hospital security
Private forest security
Internatonal organization security
Alert system
Constant security monitoring(alert repot and reaction center)
SECURITY GUARD BASIC DUTIES

•Access control and registration
•Visitors control
•Vehicles control
•Parking control
•Central monitoring
•Point sentry guards duties
•Patrol guard duties
•Basic technical process
•Fire fighting
•First aid
VEHICLES:Scan 5801 ,The Tur 3000turnstile,VCM 1000/1020 Vehicle Control

PUBLIC RELATIONS&POLITICAL RESEARCH

Global market conditions with increasing competition and rapid changes in the consumer expentations make mass media more necessary ,and at the same time more difficult for companies and institutions .To provide assistance in the management of growth,development,market share and profits ,professional public relations services to achieve in communications ,effectiveness in management and a high competition level.
Interview With Marpa Security

AXN:How long heve you been doing outsourcing business?
MARPA:We have been working as an outsourcing firm since 1990.We serve security to the companies.
AXN:Which companies do you work with?
MARPA:We can count İzmir Subway ,Camel, Tuborg,Axonobel,Schenider are our important customers.
AXN:What are your main competitors?
MARPA:Met Security ,Dat Security,Şafak Security
AXN:Who applies to the projects and make proposals?You or your customer?
MARPA:Each of them is possible .Sometimes on the we are hand make proposals to get the job and on the other hand our customer.
AXN:What are the disdvantages of outsourcing from your point of view?
MARPA:The most important disadvantage is that our job demands high responsibility .We have to pay the wages , insurances ,compensations,taxes etc.And we have to make our customers satisfied with our work .Besides this ,we have to control our staff.Whether they are doing their tasks properly .Although all these things have pressure on us and make us stressed ,we have to do our best.
AXN:What are the advantages of outsourcing from your point of view?
MARPA:Outsourcing business brings us high profit ,we are satisfied with our job .Marpa is on the way to become a group of companies ,a holding so serving security creates as a good reference ,fame!
AXN:What are you doing to survive against the competition?
What are your innovations to stand and develop yourself?
MARPA:We are trying to develop our techniques ,namely the technic security system.We prefer the engineers who are well educated ,smart and experienced .We also give importance to the public relations and we have projects like ceremonies and grand openings to develop our public relations.
AXN:Do you have any offices outside?
MARPA:Actually,we had offices abroad but they were closed when the projects were over .We have offices in Bursa ,Ankara,Istanbul ,Antalya and Bodrum.
AXN:How many workers do you have ?(divide into the companies)
MARPA:We have approximately 2000-2500 workers.170 of them are in Izmir Subway now.
AXN:How do you control your workers ?
MARPA:We are controlling our staff by paying night visits to their working places.
AXN:Do your contracts support the worker transfer between companies ?Between Camel-Metro,for example
MARPA:We can do the transfer but have to find someone instead .If we agree to 150 workers ,for example,then it never goes down to 149,we even recruit a worker as the 150th.
AXN:Is there a worker training in your company?
MARPA:Yes,our personnel are being trained for 20 days.
AXN:Do you have the right to cancel the contract?
MARPA:We have the right to cancel the contract if we are not paid.
AXN:Do you look for some qualifications in your customers or just accept the offers?
MARPA:We certainly eliminate the customers .
AXN:So you have refused some offers so far?
MARPA:Exactly…
AXN:Is there high staff turnover in your company?
MARPA:In this sector –outsourcing ,most of the workers are not qualified so it is often to see high staff turnovers.But we are trying to avoid this because we train our staff and it highly costs us .It is difficult to train the staff .And we have to do the training because serving security requires special information ,special techniques .So we try to keep the staff stability.

INTERVIEW WITH GUTEGE

AXN:How long have you been dealing with outsourcing business?
GUT:Since 1995,July.
AXN:Which companies are you working with?
GUT:Izmir Subway ,Batı Anadolu Cimento,Işık Kent Education Center,loots of banks…
AXN:Do you have any competitors in Izmir?
GUT:We have 265 competitors in Izmir.
AXN:What are your strategies?Who makes the proposals?You or your customers?
GUT:Well,the proposals are being made by us as the outsourcing firm or the customers as other firms.
AXN:Would you like to give some information about your contracts with your customers?
GUT:Unfortunately,we are not sharing that kind of information with people.
AXN:According to you what are the disadvantages of out outsourcing?
GUT:First of all ,I want to emphasize that sometimes outsourcing business is very demanding.There might be some extra work to be done .For instance ,we have to deal with cleaning windows regularly once in 15 days.Unexpectedly ,it may rain and make the windows muddy .So we meet their needs again and reclean the windows .Also,we have to clean a bank ,although we have cleaned it 2-3 days ago !
AXN:Then it all costs to you?
GUT:In fact,sometimes it all costs to us.However ,it depends on the initiative of the customer.We pay the extra costs .But it turns us back as a good reference.
AXN:You mentioned that there were 265 competitors in Izmir .That means a pure competition .So ,what are you trying to survive in this competition?What are your innovations to stand and what are you doing in order to develop?
GUT:Well of cource, we are trying to do our best and we have some projects.For instance,we have prepared our web site .There are many competitors but most of them are small businesses in terms of the personnel and the customer they work with.We assume that almost 10 of them have a web site. So it makes us different from our competitors.
AXN : Do you have any offices outside?
GUT: We only service in Aegean Zone.
AXN: How many workers do you have in Izmir Subway?
GUT: Over 60.
AXN: How many workwrs do you have totally?
GUT:Approximately 170.
AXN:How do you control them?We had an interview with the Marketing and Public Relations Assistant of Izmir Subway and she told us they had a strict control over the personnel.
GUT:Yes,certainly there is a strict control.We have a Personnel Chief and a Team Chief in Izmir Subway .They are working in the process of shifting .Every station is being controlled almost everyday and the personnel are being visited unexpectedly .Because there are three shifts in Izmir Subway and workers usually avoid doing work at night shifting.That’s why we have unexpected visitings at night ,the time of washing the railway cars .They are being cleaned at night because they work less at nights.
AXN:According to you,what are the advantages of outsourcing ?
GUT:We are satisfied with our job because it is profitable.
AXN:What about the diadvantages ?
GUT.The job brings us high responsibility besides profit .Moreover,the customers have extra request which we cannot do because of the staff turnovers.The worker can leave the job at an unexpected time,
you can not trust the worker .When you have an extra request that you can not do, it remains as a bad reference in the customer’s mind.That is an important disadvantage.To prevent it ,we have to make the personnel transfer between the companies .
AXN:Do you have the right to transfer the personnel according to your contracts?
GUT:Actually,no.But we have on -the –way teams to clean the banks when we have lack of worker ,we get it from on-the-way teams.Similarly,when we have lack of worker ,the part time workers help us.The workers in the big companies usually keep the stability and do not move to somewhere else.
AXN:Is there a personnel training in your firm?
GUT:First of all , experiences are important for us .For example , cleaning a window is a difficult job although it seems easy.It is done techniqually.I mean,it must be done without staining .Experiences are important on polishing the floor and using the machines as well.Because you give the worker something that has the value of 3-3,5 billion TL.It is a big risk when a worker is experienced ,we support him/her with on -the- job training.

A. International benefits of ISO

1. Improving the organization’s access

a. Developing the organization

b. Entering the global market

c. Continuous Improvement

2. Easy trade liberation

a. Improving the access of world market

b. Consistent quality brings success

B. Local benefits of ISO

1. Competitive edge

a. Registered vs. non-registered competitor

b. Wide market area for registered organizations

2. Local market area

a. Better products and services

b. Selling more and more

ISO 3

II. ISO benefits at internal level

A. Benefits for employees

1. Better understanding of work

a. Reduction of rework

b. Quickly comprehensible by new staff

2. Reduced stress level and increasing efficiency

3. Increased morale of the workforce

B. Financial benefits

1. Drop in cost of quality

a. Reduction of reworks costs

b. Customer satisfactions

2. Enhanced profit

a. Improving of productivity

b. Increased production rate

ISO 4

In today’s borderless market world, organizations, especially global corporations, have to improve their quality assurance. In other words, their quality assurance is important for constituting permanent market status. On the other hand, there is a controversial question about quality. Is quality a subjective concept ‘like beauty’? In fact, customers have different opinions about the concept of quality, but there should be some tough and strict standards for quality to generate blameless products and services. That’s why several quality standards have been found to thwart these individual quality guarantees. They couldn’t be accepted universally, however they are able to thwart this individuality. In 1947, a non-governmental organization is established called ISO (International Organization for Standardization) ISO is a worldwide federation of national standards bodies from more than 140 countries (ISO official, 2002). After the recognition of ISO, in 1987 the International Organization for Standardization designed ISO 9000 series, based in Geneva, Switzerland, to thwart these individual quality guarantees (Robbins & DeCenzo, 1997, p. 101). Although there are many standardization methods, which can be substituted for ISO, they are unable to offer as many benefits to registered organizations at the external level, both internationally and locally, and at the internal level.
First of all, international benefits of ISO are improving the organization’s access and easy trade liberalization at the external level. One of the most important benefits of ISO 9000 certification is improving an organization’s access to world market (“ISO 9000 series”, 2002). ISO 9000 certification is a chance for a company to have much more area for doing business. ISO registration also helps to develop the organizations in the spheres of intellectual, scientific, technological and economic activity (“ISO official”, 2002). Moreover,

ISO 5

the ISO 9000 is the standard of quality accepted by the European community and also spreading throughout Americas and Asia; as a result, the acceptance of these standards make it easier to compete against big corporations throughout the global market (Chaundron, 2001). In addition, “ISO 9000 forces an organization to focus on ‘how they do business’ and each procedure and work instruction must be documented and thus, becomes the springboard for continuous improvement” (“Applied”, 2000). Also, free-market economies are spreading throughout the world market, that’s why the liberalization of trade is increasing in the spheres of ISO standards (ISO official, 2002). Adaptation to ISO 9000 standards for a company gives a chance to improve the company’s access to the world market share (“ISO 9000 series”. 2002). Therefore, the product assurance is important for companies if those companies purchase the components from the companies in other countries, that’s why they need consistent quality of products (“ISO 9000 series”, 2002). This assures purchasers that a common quality level is present and that it will meet or exceed their own quality management programs.
Additionally, the major benefits of ISO 9000 standards are competitive edge and local market share. One of the most important local benefits of ISO is competitive edge that allows organizations to compete against other registered companies and have much more profits than non-registered companies have (“ISO 9000 series”, 2002). According to a survey, competitive edge (24.2%) is one the biggest reasons for a company to get ISO certification (Kian, 1997). Chaundron (2001) expressed the belief that registration of ISO 9000 standards gives competitive advantages to registered organizations over non-registered organizations.

ISO 6

For instance, Robbins & DeCenzo (1997) mentioned on page 101 that 89 nations have accepted ISO standards. They also add that non-registered companies have difficulties in doing business in those countries, so they can’t compete against registered companies, as it means registered companies have advantages to improve their market opportunities (“ISO 9000 series”, 2002). It is easier to penetrate certain new markets where certification is one of the contract requirements. In addition, local market share expands when a company gets ISO certification. Also local market share is belonging to the product quality. Better quality products and services are confirmed by the explanation of “ISO registered organizations have formal documentation that outlines the core principle of quality management system and describes the terminology used in quality management system” (“ISO 9000”, 2001).
Secondly, when an organization gets ISO certification, it brings many advantages to employees such as better understanding of work, reduced stress level, being quickly comprehensible by new staff and increased morale of the work force (“ISO series”, 2002). Initially, “ISO documentation serves as a benchmark for current employees and it is a ‘must-read’ for new staff joining the organization” (“ISO certification”, 2002). Actually, rework of employees is reduced because; ISO documentation shows the correct way of process. Also, Hatley (1998) mentioned that the documentation of ISO standards helps new staff to practice and learn the process when they come into the organization. In addition, ISO 9000 gives guidance to companies to look over the methods and techniques of production, so it causes increased efficiency (Hatley, 1998). When there are striking standards for production,

ISO 7

employees’ morale increases. Hence, they can easily dominate the process of work (“Applied”, 2000). Also ISO process examines relationships between people and processes that naturally lead to better communication, fewer mistakes and a smoother, better run operation.
Lastly, enhanced profit, increased production rate and drop in cost of quality are the major financial benefits of ISO 9000 certification (“ISO series”, 2002). Generally, the companies do not usually know what costs can be attributed to a lack of process control quality, and companies usually focus on improving performance through increased sales
instead of reducing costs. Organizations persist for getting ISO 9000 certification, however there is controversy about its costs. Primarily, the documented processes are reasons for repetition, repetition helps to eliminate the variation, as the variation is eliminated, the efficiency improves and the cost of quality is decreased (“Applied”, 2000). It means that less materials, efforts and wasted time are spent. Also, ISO 9000 certification is beneficial for many organizations, because it helps to reduce scrap expenses as well (“Applied”, 2000). Another important benefit of ISO 9000 certification is customer satisfactions. “As a company transforms from reactive organization to a pro-active, preventative organization, it becomes a company people want to do business with” (“Applied”, 2000). Companies’ profits are increased, because improved quality products and services are not rejected (“ISO series”, 2002). It means that if you are manufacturing improved quality products and services, a huge number of customers and maybe organizations want to do business with you. Eventually you can receive a much bigger piece of the market cake. As a consequence of ISO’s advantages

ISO 8

such as developing manufacturing methods, increasing education of employees; ISO gives guidance to improve the productivity. It is essential for big companies to promote their production. ISO also benefits from the increase at the production rate, which is very effective at enhancing the corporate profit.
In conclusion, the foundation of ISO was carried out to make worldwide progress in trade liberalization, interpenetration of sectors, worldwide communications systems, global standards for emerging technologies and developing countries (“ISO official”, 2002). Therefore, ISO 9000 series become inalienable for thousands of organizations. Also, customers’ choices have changed. Nowadays they take care for ISO cachet products and services. Actually, the mission of ISO 9000 series is to contribute to making life easier and comfortable and increasing the reliability and effectiveness of the goods and services. Till now, ISO seems to have achieved this mission.

Long range : longer than 12 months (long range plans)
• Long-term capacity
• Location
• Layout
• Product design
• Work system design

The goal of aggregate planning is to achieve a production plan that will effectively utilize the organisation’s resources to satisfy expected demand.

Planners must make decisions on
• output rates
• employment levels
• inventory levels
• backorders
• subcontracting

A general procedure for aggregate planning
1. determine demand for each period
2. determine capacities (regular time, overtime, subcontracting) fore ach period
3. identify company or departmental policies that are pertinent (e.g., safety stock)
4. Determine unit costs
5. Develop alternative plans and compute the cost for each
6. Select the best

Aggregate planning inputs:
• Demand forecast
• Resources
• Workforce/production rates
• Facilities and equipment
• Policy statements on workforce changes
• Subcontracting
• Overtime
• Inventory levels
• Backorders
• Costs
• Smoothing : Smoothing costs are those costs that accrue as a result of changing the production level from one period to the next. The most salient smoothing cost is the cost of changing the size of the workforce.
• Inventory carrying costs
• Backorders
• Regular time
• Overtime
• Subcontracting

Basic strategies for meeting uneven demand:
 Chase demand strategy (zero inventory plan)
 Level output strategy (constant workforce plan)

Example :
Densepack is to plan workforce and production levels for the six-month period Jan-June. Forecast demands over the next six months are 1280, 640, 900, 1200, 2000, 1400. There are currently (end of December) 300 workers employed. Ending inventory in December is expected to be 500 units, and the firm would like to have 600 units on hand at the end of June. Cost of hiring one worker : $500; cost of firing one worker: $1,000; cost of holding one unit of inventory for one month : $80. K= # of aggregate units produced by one worker in one day = 0.14653 (in 22 days 76 workers produced 245 units  245/(22*76)). Number of working days :

Month Number of working days
January 20
February 24
March 18
April 26
May 22
June 15

Two opposite management strategies : zero inventory plan and constant workforce plan.

Plan 1 : Zero inventory plan

Month # of days Forecast demand # of units produced per worker Min # of workers
Jan 20 780 2.931 267
Feb 24 640 3.517 182
Mar 18 900 2.638 342
Apr 26 1200 3.810 315
May 22 2000 3.224 621
Jun 15 2000 2.198 910

Month # of workers # hired # fired # of units produced Cumulative production Cumulative demand Ending inv
Jan 267 - 33 783 783 780 3
Feb 182 - 85 640 1423 1420 3
Mar 342 160 - 902 2325 2320 5
Apr 315 - 27 1200 3525 3520 5
May 621 306 - 2002 5527 5520 7
Jun 910 289 - 2000 7527 7520 7
Total 755 145 30

Total cost = 755*500 + 145*1000 + 30*80 + 600*80 = $ 572,900

Plan 2 : Constant Workforce Plan

A B C D E F G
Month # of units produced per worker Cumulative # of units produced per worker Cumulative net demand Ratio
(C/B) Monthly production
(A*411) Cumulative production Ending inventory
(F-C)
Jan 2.931 2.931 780 267 1205 1205 425
Feb 3.517 6.448 1420 221 1445 2650 1230
Mar 2.638 9.086 2320 256 1084 3734 1414
Apr 3.810 12.896 3520 273 1566 5300 1780
May 3.224 16.120 5520 343 1325 6625 1105
Jun 2.198 18.318 7520 411 903 7528 8
Total 5962
It is only a coincidence that the maximum ratio occurred in the final period.

The constant workforce plan requires hiring 111 (411-300) workers at the beginning of January.

80*(5962+600)=$524,960  inventory
500*(411-300)=$55,500  increasing the workforce
total cost : $580,460

Solution of Aggregate Planning Problems by LP

Parameters
CH : cost of hiring one worker
CF : cost of firing one worker
Ch : cost of holding one unit of stock for one period
CR : cost of producing one unit on regular time
CO : incremental cost of producing one unit on overtime
CU : idle cost per unit of production
CS : cost to subcontract one unit of production
nt : # of production days in period t
K : # of aggregate units produced by one worker in one day
I0 : initial inventory on hand
W0 : initial workforce
Dt : forecast of demand in period t

Variables
Wt : workforce level in period t
Pt : production level in period t
It : inventory level in period t
Ht : # of workers hired in period t
Ft : # of workers fired in period t
Ot : Overtime production units
Ut : Worker idle time in units (“undertime”)
St : # of units subcontracted from outside

Material Requirements Planning

Hubbell Lighting is a manufacturer of industrial lighting products:
employs 425 workers, 63 product families, weekly schedules for the production of 3200 end items. These end items consist of 15,000 components.

Prior to MRP, the factory completed less than 75 percent of its orders on time. After MRP, on-time delivery rose to 97 percent.

MRP : MRP is an approach to the problem of determining the number of parts, components, and materials needed to produce each end item. MRP also provides the time schedule specifying when each of these materials, parts, and components should be ordered or produced.

Master Production Schedule (MPS)

The aggregate production plan specifies product groups. The next level down in the planning process after the development of the aggregate plan is the master production schedule.

MPS is the time-phased plan specifying how many and when the firm plans to build each specific end item.

A Simple MRP Example:

Product structure tree for Product T:

100 T are required:
Part U 2 x 100 T 200
Part V 3 x 100 T 300
Part W 1 x 200 U + 2 x 300 V 800
Part X 2 x 200 U 400
Part Y 2 x 300 600
Time needed to obtain these items, that is, either to produce the parts internally or to obtain them from an outside vendor.

Part Lead-time
T 1
U 2
V 2
W 3
X 1
Y 1

Material requirements plan for completing 100 units of product T :

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Leadtime
T Required Date
100 1
Order Placement 100
U Required Date 200 2
Order Placement 200
V Required Date 300 2
Order Placement 300
W Required Date 800 3
Order Placement 800
X Required Date 400 1
Order Placement 400
Y Required Date 600 1
Order Placement 600

MRP System Structure :

Bills Of Materials (BOM) File : (also called) product structure or product tree
It contains the information necessary to identify each item and the quantity used per unit of the item in which it is used.

Low Level Coding : all identical parts occur at the same level for each end produc.

Example :
Ampere Inc. produces a line of electric meters installed in residential buildings to measure power consumption. Meters used on single-family homes are of two basic types for different voltage and amperage ranges. In addition, to complete the meters some parts and subassemblies are sold separately for repair or for changeovers to a different voltage or power load. The problem for the MRP program is to determine a production schedule that would identify each item, the period it is needed, and the appropriate quantities. Assume all items to be available the first week of the month.

Future order requirements
Month Meter A Meter B Subassembly D Part E
3 1250 460 270 380
4 850 360 250 430
5 550 560 320 380
6 950 460 270 330
7 850 360 220 280
8 950 760 230 280

A : D(1) + E(2) + C(1) B : E(1) + F(2) + C(1)
C : D(1) + F(2) D : E(1) + F(1)
E : - F : -

Inventory Record File :
Item On-hand Inventory Lead-time (weeks)
A 50 2
B 60 2
C 40 1
D 30 1
E 30 1
F 40 1

Solution :

?????????????

Lot for Lot:

EOQ Lot Sizing :

Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Requirements 42 42 32 12 26 112 45 14 76 38

Co (setup cost) = $132
Ch = $0.60 per unit per week
d = 439 units over the 10-week period

EOQ=139 units

Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Requirements 42 42 32 12 26 112 45 14 76 38
Planned order (EOQ) 139 0 0 0 139 0 139 0 0 139
Ending Inventory 97 55 23 11 124 12 106 92 16 117

4 Co + (97+55+…+117) Ch = $528 + $391.8 = $919.8

The Silver-Meal Heuristic:

C(T): the average holding and setup cost per period if the current order spans the next T periods.

Start with period 1:

C(1)=K
C(2)=(K+h.d2)/2
C(3)=(K+h.d2+2h.d3)/3

In general : C(j)=(K+h.d2+2h.d3+…+(j-1)h.dj)/j

Once C(j)>C(j-1), we stop and set U1=d1+d2+…+dj-1

Begin the process again starting at period j.

Example :
d={18,30,42,5,20}, Ch=$2 per unit per week, Co=$80
C(1)=80
C(2)=(80+2×30)/2=70
C(3)=(80+2×30+2x2x42)/3=102.67. Stop because C(3)>C(2).
U1=d1+d2=18+30=48

Starting in period 3:
C(1)=80
C(2)=(80+2×5)/2=45
C(3)=(80+2×5+2x2x20)/3=56.67. Stop
U3=d3+d4=47

U5=20

C(j+1)=(j/(j+1))(C(j)+hdj)

Result : $310 (actually the optimal policy)
Least Unit Cost : The LUC heuristic is similar to the Silver-Meal method except that instead of dividing the cost over j periods by the number of periods, j, we divide it by the total number of units demanded through period j, d1+d2+…+dj. We choose the order horizon that minimizes the cost per unit of demand rather than the cost per period.

C(1)=K/d1
C(2)=(K+hd2)/(d1+d2)
…
C(j)=(K+hd2+2d3+…+(j-1)hdj)/(d1+d2+…+dj)
Stopped when C(j)>C(j-1), and the production level is set equal to d1+d2+…+dj-1

Example :

C(1)=80/18=4.44
C(2)=(80+2×30)/(18+30)=2.92
C(3)=(80+2×30+2x2x42)/(18+30+42)=3.42
Because C(3)>C(2), we stop and set U1=d1+d2=48

Starting in period 3
C(1)=80/42=1.90
C(2)=(80+2×5)/(42+5)=1.92
Because C(2)>C(1) stop and set U3=d3=42

Starting in period 4
C(1)=80/5=16,
C(2)=(80+2×20)/(5+20)=4.8
U(4)=d4+d5=5+20=25

Result = $340

Part Period Balancing :

The method is to set the order horizon equal to the number of periods that most closely matches the total holding cost with the setup cost over that period. The order horizon that exactly equates holding and setup costs will rarely be an integer number of periods (hence the origin of the name of the method).

Example :

Starting in period 1:
Total Ch(1)= 0
Total Ch(2)=60
Total Ch(3)=228
Because 228 exceeds the setup cost of 80, we stop.
As 80 is closer to 60 than to 228, the first order horizon is two periods.
U(1)=18+30=48

We start the process again in period 3
Total Ch(1)=0
Total Ch(2)=10
Total Ch(3)=90
We have exceeded the setup costs of 80, so we stop. Because 90 is closer to 80 than is 10, the order horizon is three periods.
U(3)=42+5+20=67

Result=$310 (different from Silver Meal and still the optimal result)

Operations Scheduling (Nahmias Ch.7)

Job Shop Scheduling :
A job shop scheduling problem is one in which n jobs must be processed through m machines.

Terminology:
Flow shop : In a flow shop each of the n jobs must be processed through the m machines in the same order, and each job is processed exactly once on each machine. This is what we typically think of as an assembly line.
Job shop : A general job shop differs from a flow shop in that not all jobs are assumed to require exactly m operations, and some jobs may require multiple operations on a single machine. Furhermore, in a job shop each job may have a different required sequencing of operations.
Flow time : The flow time of job i is the time that elapses from the initiation of the first job on the first machine to the completion of job i. Equivalently, it is the amount of time that job i spends in the system. The mean flow time, which is a common measure of system performance, is the arithmetic average of the flow times for all n jobs.
Makespan : The makespan is the flow time of the job that is completed last. It is also the time required to complete all n jobs.
Tardiness and lateness : Tardiness is the positive difference between the completion time (flow time) and the due date of a job. A tardy job is one that is completed after its due date. Lateness refers to the difference between the job completion time and its due date, and differs from tardiness in that lateness can be either positive or negative.

A Comparison of Specific Sequencing Rules:

A single machine; a collection of jobs that must be processed on the machine and that each job has associated with it a processing time and a due date.

4 Sequencing Rules :

FCFS (first-come, first-served)
SPT (shortest processing time)
EDD (earliest due date)
CR (critical ratio): processing time of a job / remaining time until the due date (largest ratio next)

Example
The jobs are labeled 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 in the order that they entered the shop
Job Number Processing Time Due Date
1 11 61
2 29 45
3 31 31
4 1 33
5 2 32

FCFS
Sequence Completion Time Due Date Tardiness
1 11 61 0
2 40 45 0
3 71 31 40
4 72 33 39
5 74 32 42
Totals 268 121

Mean flow time = 268/5 = 53.6
Average tardiness = 121/5 = 24.2
Number of tardy jobs = 3

SPT

Job Processing Time Completion Time Due Date Tardiness
4 1 1 33 0
5 2 3 32 0
1 11 14 61 0
2 29 43 45 0
3 31 74 31 43
Totals 135 43

Mean flow time = 135/5 = 27.0
Average tardiness = 43/5 = 8.6
Number of tardy jobs = 1

EDD

Here jobs are completed in the order of their due dates.

Job Processing Time Completion Time Due Date Tardiness
3 31 31 31 0
5 2 33 32 1
4 1 34 33 1
2 29 63 45 18
1 11 74 61 13
Totals 235 33

Mean flow time = 235/5 = 47.0
Average tardiness = 33/5 = 6.6
# of tardy jobs = 4

CR

After each job has been processed, we compute
Critical Ratio=(Due date-Current time)/(Processing time)
and schedule the next job in order to minimize the value of the critical ratio.

The idea behind is to provide a balance between SPT, which only considers processing time, and EDD, which only considers due dates.

t=0

Job Processing Time Due date Critical Ratio
1 11 61 61/11=5.545
2 29 45 45/29=1.552
3 31 31 31/31=1.000
4 1 33 33/1=33.000
5 2 32 32/2=16.000

Job 3 is performed first.

t=31

Job Processing Time Due date Critical Ratio
1 11 30 30/11=2.727
2 29 14 14/29=0.483
4 1 2 2/1=2.000
5 2 1 1/2=0.500

Job 2 is performed second

t=31+29=60

Job Processing Time Due date Critical Ratio
1 11 1 1/11
4 1 -27 -27/1
5 2 -28 -28/2

Jobs 4 and 5 are now late. hey are scheduled in SPT order

Summary:

Job Processing Time Completion Time Tardiness
3 31 31 0
2 29 60 15
4 1 61 28
5 2 63 31
1 11 74 13
Totals 289 87

Mean flow time = 289/5 = 57.8
Average tardiness = 87/5 =17.4
Number of tardy jobs = 4

Summary of the results of four scheduling rules:
Rule Mean Flow Time Average Tardiness # of tardy jobs
FCFS 53.6 24.2 3
SPT 27.0 8.6 1
EDD 47.0 6.6 4
CR 57.8 17.4 4

Example :
Plane 1 2 3 4 5
Landing Time 26 11 19 16 23
# of Passengers 180 12 45 75 252
Scheduled arrival time 5:30 5:45 5:15 6:00 5:40

Difficulty of choosing an objective function:
1) minimize total time required to land : makespan = 95 min (for any sequence)
2) minimize the average time required to land : mean flow time (SPT rule is optimal)
3) land as many people as quickly as possible : weighted makespan
4) minimize the average tardiness or minimize the maximum tardiness

Sequencing Theory for a single machine:

Theorem : The scheduling rule that minimizes the mean flow time is SPT.

Corollary : The following measures are equivalent:
1. Mean flow time, 2. Mean waiting time, 3. Mean lateness

If the objective is to minimize the maximum lateness, then the jobs should be sequenced according to their due dates.

Minimize the number of tardy jobs: an algorithm from Moore (1968)
Step 1. Sequence the jobs according to the earliest due date to obtain the initial solution. That is d1<=d2<=…<=dn.
Step 2. Find the first tardy job in the current sequence, say job i. If none exists go to step 4.
Step 3. consider jobs 1, 2, …, i. Reject the job with the largest processing time. Return to step 2.
Step 4. Form an optimal sequence by taking the current sequence and appending to it the rejected jobs. The jobs appended to the current sequence may be scheduled in any order because they constitute the tardy jobs.

Example : (for Moore)
Job 1 2 3 4 5 6
Due date 15 6 9 23 20 30
Processing Time 10 3 4 8 10 6

Step1. apply EDD rule
Job 2 3 1 5 4 6
Due date 6 9 15 20 23 30
Processing Time 3 4 10 10 8 6
Completion Time 3 7 17 27 35 41

First tardy job is job 1. Consider job 2,3 and 1. Reject job 1 which has the longest processing time.

Job 2 3 5 4 6
Due date 6 9 20 23 30
Processing Time 3 4 10 8 6
Completion Time 3 7 17 25 31

First tardy job is job 4. Consider 2,3,5,4. Reject job 5.

Job 2 3 4 6
Due date 6 9 23 30
Processing Time 3 4 8 6
Completion Time 3 7 15 21

The optimal sequence is 2,3,4,6,5,1 or 2,3,4,6,1,5. The number of tardy jobs is exactly 2.

Precedence constraints : Lawler’s Algorithm (1973)

Example:
Tony D’Amato runs a local body shop that does automotive painting and repairs. On a particular Monday morning he has six cars waiting for repair. First three (1,2,3) are from a car rental company and he has agreed to finish these cars in the order of the dates that they were promised. Cars 4, 5, and 6 are from a retail dealer who has requested that car 4 be completed first because a customer is waiting for it.

Job 1 2 3 4 5 6
Processing Time 2 3 4 3 2 1
Due date 3 6 9 7 11 7

Minimize the maximum tardiness

Solution:

Precedence constraints 1→2→3 5←4→6

1. Find the job scheduled last. {3,5,6}. Total processing time : 2+3+4+3+2+1=15. (τ=15). Compare the lateness of these three jobs and pick the one with the smallest value.
min{15-9, 15-11, 15-7}=4 ←job 5. Position 6 ← job 5.

2. Find the job scheduled fifth. {3,6}. τ=15-2. min{13-9,13-7}=4 ←job 3. Position 5 ← job 3.

3. Find the job scheduled fourth. {2,6}. τ=13-4. min{9-6,9-7}=2 ←job 6. Position 4 ← job 6.

4. Find the job scheduled third. {2,4}. τ=9-1. min{8-6,8-7}=1 ←job 4. Position 5 ← job 3.

5. Job 1 and 2 are left. Hence, 1-2-4-6-3-5.

Job Processing Time Flow Time Due Date Tardiness
1 2 2 3 0
2 3 5 6 0
4 3 8 7 1
6 1 9 7 2
3 4 13 9 4
5 2 15 11 4

Maximum tardiness is 4 days.
Sequencing algorithms for multiple machines:

n jobs are to be processed through m machines. If jobs may be processed on the machines in any order, the # of possible schedules (n!)m. For n=5 and m=5 there are 24,883,000,000 schedules.

Machine 1 Machine 2
Job I 4 1
Job J 1 4

Assume that both jobs must be processed first on machine 1 and then on machine 2.

(1) 0 i 4 j 5
4 i 5 j 9
(2) 0 j 1 i 5
1 j 5 i 6
(3) 0 j 1 i 5
5 i 6 j 10
(4) 0 i 4 j 5
5 j 9 i 10
System performance
Makespan : (1) 9, (2) 6, (3) 10, (4) 10.
Mean flow time : (1) (5+9)/2, (2) (5+6)/2, and so on
Mean idle time : (1) (4+4)/2, (2) (1+1)/2, (3) (5+5)/2, (4) (5+5)/2

Scheduling n Jobs on Two Machines:
Objective : minimize the makespan.
Theorem : The optimal solution for scheduling n jobs on two machines is always a permutation schedule. Permutation schedule : the jobs are processed in the same sequence on both machines. (1) and (2) are permutation schedules.
Johnson’s algorithm (1954):
Denote machines by A and B. The jobs must be processed first on machine A and then on machine B. Notation : Ai = Processing time of job i on machine A.

Rule: Job i precedes job i+1 if min(Ai,Bi-1)

Easy way to implement:
1. List the values of Ai and Bi in two columns.
2. Find the smallest remaining element in the two columns. If it appears in Column A, then schedule that job next. If it appears in column B, then schedule that job last. Break ties arbitrarily.
3. Cross off the jobs as they are scheduled. Stop when all jobs have been scheduled.

Example:
Job Machine A Machine B
1 5 2
2 1 6
3 9 7
4 3 8
5 10 4

1. Identify minimum job time: job 2 on machine A = 1.
2. Job 2 is scheduled first and row 2 is crossed out.
3. Next smallest element is 2, for job 1 on machine B.
4. Job 1 is scheduled last.
5. The next smallest element is 3, corresponding to job 4 on machine A.

Continue in this fashion 2-4-3-5-1.

Diagram
0 A2 1 A4 4 A3 13 A5 23 A1 28
1 B2 7 B4 15 B3 22 23 B5 27 28 B1 30

The Two-Job Flow Shop Problem : Akers (1956)

Assume that 2 jobs are to be processed through m machines. Each job must be processed by the machines in a particular order, but the sequences for the two jobs need not be the same.

1. Draw a cartesian coordinate system with the processing time correponding to the first job on the horizontal axis and the processing times corresponding to the second job on the vertical axis. On each axis, mark off the operation times in the order in which the operations must be performed for that job.
2. Block out areas corresponding to each machine at the intersection of the intervals marked for that machine on the two axes.
3. Determine a path from the origion to the end of the final block that does not intersect any of the blocks and that minimizes the vertical movement. Movement is allowed only in three directions: horizontal, vertical, and 45-degree diagonal. The path with minimum vertical distance will indicate the optimal solution.

Example 1:

Job 1 Job 2
Operation Time Operation Time
A 3 A 2
B 4 B 5
C 5 C 3

This method does not require the two jobs to be processed in the same sequence on the machines.

Example 2:

John and Bob are roomates who enjoy spending Sunday mornings reading the Sunday newspaper. John likes to read the main section first, followed by the sports section, then the comic, and finally the classifieds. Bob also starts with the main section, but then goes directly to the classifieds, followed by the sports section and finally the comics.

John Bob
Required sequence Time Required sequence Time
Main section (A) 6 Main section (A) 4
Sports (B) 1 Classifieds (D) 3
Comics (C) 5 Sports (B) 2
Clasifieds (D) 4 Comics (C) 5

Minimize the total time required to complete reading the paper.

SONMAK A.S.
Sonmak is the leader of the diamond tool manufacturing in Turkey. More than 6000 customers in many countries all over the world, dealing with stone cutting, construction, mechanical, mining and petroleum industries use Sonmak diamond tools.
Sonmak has established a policy based on three key elements;
-Advanced technology,
-High performance,
-Low cost.
To maintain this policy, Sonmak set up a Research and Development Center with a highly qualified technical team. Any special tool based on customer’s requirements defined by technical drawings can be manufactured.
Sonmak A.S. was found to produce drilling machines for the oil and mining. Today, they give services to the oil, mining, marble and construction sectors with its wide range of product selections.
Sonmak A.S. has an experience of 26 years in diamonded tools and they continue with their expansion in many areas. The Research-Developing, which we will emphasize later in the project, works on quality control that are very important for the company and they give service with a large range of staff and area.
The founders of Sonmak, Aydin and Omer Isik Demiray believe that Sonmak has played an important role in the development of the “marble section”. Aydin and Omer Isik Demiray remark that the Turkish Industry has became free from its dependency to abroad with the beginning of the production of the diamonded sets in the inland. They also say that they obtained the ease to the user in subject of the after-selling services and the time. These efforts set the proof of the Sonmak’s producing its products with their own effort for the first time in Turkey and they, hence make export to five continents.
“The development of Turkey’s marble section is connected completely to Sonmak’s production of best quality.” These words belong to the founder of Sonmak A.S., Aydin Demiray and Omer Isik Demiray.
Aydin and Omer Isik Demiray brothers remark that the marble producers have big difficulties in import of raw materials, the buying of a new set or the repairing of an old set have taken too much time and this produces big problems at customs in the past periods. They say that, today the users are buying the sets that are produced with the latest developed technology, together with the after-selling service. Sonmak A.S. has a wide range of product selection for the oil, mining, marble and building sections and they give service to about five thousand local customers. Sonmak possesses a respectful place in the local, as well as in the foreign market and as a result of the activities of the 14 representatives abroad, they realize exports to five continents.
Sonmak A.S. was founded by Aydin and Omer Isik Demiray to produce oil and mining drills in 1975. Especially with their 26 years long experience in diamond sets, they have been giving service in a 3000m2 closed are and 30002 open area, with about 160 staff. Besides, Sonmak gives engineering and prompt services to its customers for all of their products.

PRODUCTS
Diamond Circular Saws
Sonmak produces diamond circular saws for cutting marble, granite, travertine or any other kind of stone. The company also offers diamond circular saws for cutting of concrete and asphalt. Sonmak diamond circular saws are available in diameters 200 to 3000 mm.
Customers are perfectly satisfied with Sonmak blades because of their superior properties like free cutting, low energy consumption and long life.
In the marble section, the diamonded circle saw is used to cut marble, granite, travertine, andesite, and other similar stones. Besides this, suitable saws for cutting of different concretes and asphalts are also produced. The Sonmak saws can be produced in different circuits as from 100 mm up to 3000mm and they offer advantages like free cutting, low costs, sawing energy and long life to their customers. The active cutting part at diamonded circle saws are the plates with diamond called “socket”, which get soldered under sensitive heat time and pressure control on the saw blades. The sockets are produced after the classic dust metallurgy system. The synthetic diamond, which get mixed with proper connecting dusts, became first of all formed at cold presses and than designed at heated presses by a technical team under calculation of the graphite molds, the kind of socket which will be produced, the geometry and the working conditions. The most important factor for stone cutting is the property of the sockets to the stones that has to be cut. The stone has to corrode the socket, because, the sockets have to cut the stones by corroding. In this way, new diamonds will replace blunted diamonds at the surface and the cutting procedure will continue. The connecting dust and the kind of the diamond designates the property of the sockets. The technical staff, which consists of engineers, determines the proper connector, proper diamond, the mixture proportion and the production conditions according to the kind of the stone and the working conditions of the sockets.
Diamonded Gang Saw Blades
Diamond gang saw blades are used for economic manufacture of slabs from quarried blocks of soft stone, marble, travertine, limestone etc.
The segments can be arranged at regular or irregular intervals depending on service life and blade stability and surface quality of the slabs. When ordering, detailed information about machine type, operating conditions and materials to be processed should be given, so that the optimum blade specifications can be determined.
In the marble section, diamonded gang saw blades are used to cut more than one slab from a stone block at the same time. As it is at the circle saws, the cutting part at gang saw blades are the diamonded sockets. The most important factor at gang saw blades is the number of the sockets to be soldered to the blades and the solder distance. According to the kind of the stones to be cut, the gang saw and the cutting conditions, the quantity and distance get designated and soldered by engineers. To increase the service life of the gang saw sockets and the surface quality of the plates, Sonmak has started with conical socket production in the last years. Because of its geometry, conical sockets get in touch with the stone only from the cutting surface and this way, with the caught of the socket between the plates, the unevenness on the surface of the plates as well as the corrugates get avoided.
Masonary Core Drills
Sonmak masonary core drills are available in different diameter and lengths. Diameters range from 10mm to 600mm and length up to 2 meters. Masonary drills can be effectively used for; Drilling and sampling green concrete, reinforced concrete, asphalt, and any type of stone. Installation works in buildings, opening works on concrete and reinforced concrete structures.
Electroplated Diamond Tools
Sonmak offers a wide range of high quality electroplated diamond tools for stone, glass, plastics and ceramic processing such as; Diamond beads and diamond wire, Cutting discs, Profile wheels, Grinding discs and tips, Core drills.
Diamonded Wires
Sonmak is also producing electrolysis and synthesis diamonded wires to be used at the marble quarries to get out blocks without damaging, for sizing of the blocks and cutting of big surfaces. Sonmak is also offering to the users service steal ropes, springs, sequins, pressing and connecting screws used at diamonded wires. The cutting procedure at diamonded wires is made by the diamonded cylindrical pieces called “Bead”. The beads, which are used at synthesis diamonded wires, are produced by synthesizing the connection dusts with the mixture of synthetic diamonds at hot presses, as it is at the sockets. The connecting dust, kind of the stone, which is to be cut. The bead for electrolysis-diamonded wires is produced by connecting the diamond to the steal core with the help of the metal covering.
Diamonded Concrete Drills
The diamonded concrete drills from Sonmak are used at buildings to take concrete samples, at reconstruction or if necessary to drill holes soundless, cheap, fast, clean and exactly into ironed concretes, brick walls and stone grounds. The circuit of the drills change from 10 up to 600 mm and the length reaches up to two meters.
Boring Drills
Sonmak is giving service to the mining section with diamonded boring drills and boring equipment since 1975.
Other Products
Sonmak is also producing the diamonded caliber polisher, which are used at the calibrations of soft and hard rock masses. The caliber polisher is designed separately for each machine and stone.
The other product group of Sonmak is diamonded filters and profiles, used also in marble section. The standard diamonded filters are produced to open canals of 10, 15, 20 and 30 mm wideness and profiles for R= 10, 15, 20 and 30 mm. In the product range of Sonmak, there are also abrasives and polisher in different diamond largeness from 50 mesh up to 3500 mesh used for polishing of stones, square and ceramic tiles. In comparison to oxide based polisher, diamonded polisher are resulting a much better polished surface and the customers can take advantage from long life, sparing energy, working quite and without any vibration.
Diamond Milling Tools, Wheel Grinders, and Profiles
Sonmak produces sintered and electrodeposited milling tools, wheel grinders and profiles in any shape or dimension. The product range includes peripheral milling wheels for contour and profiles, cup wheels, diamond milling rolls and calibrators for marble and granite.
Abrasives and Glass Discs
Abrasives: Sonmak produces numerous abrasives for the polishing of any kind of stone. Products comprise different sizes of diamonds ranging between 50 – 3500 mesh in ASTM standard.
By using our abrasives you can reach the following advantages;
-Better polishing.
-Longer life.
-Energy saving.
-Silent operation.
Glass Discs: Sonmak produces glass discs for both technical and decorative purposes. Optical glass discs, glass hole drilling equipment are some of the examples of our products.

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
The company founders are two brothers, Ömer and Aydın Demiray who are also too well educated engineers and managers. With the inclusion of Emrah Aydoğan who is also the son in law of Mr. Aydın Demiray, the company turned into a family owned firm. Therefore, there is no straight forward organizational structure of the company. However, we can define the structure of the company in a simple based of function.
There are total 160 workers in the factory. These workers work under three functional departments. These departments are sales, production and personnel ones.
The personnel department consists of 10 workers such as accountancy, secretaries, insurance agency, guards etc. Ömer Demiray is responsible for these personnel department as well as the sales department.
In sales department, there is a sales director plus the sales man and dealers who are also the truck drivers. There are 20 employees in this department. The production department has three sub-department; these are saws, diamond wires and drills. There are 130 employees in total in this department, 20 employees for diamond wires and drills for each and 90 employees in the saws department. The administrator of the diamond wire is Aydın Demiray himself with one master workman, two foreman and the workers.
The saws is the most important department of production. Most of the products are produced within this department. Emrah Aydoğan, being the administrator and the engineer, works with 4 master workmen, 6 foremen and 80 workers.
The drills department is being administrated with the cooperation of Aydın Demiray and Emrah Aydoğan. Two master workmen and two foremen of the saws department support this section and there are seperate workers manufacturing in the section.
Emrah Aydoğan is not only working for the saws and the drills departments but also plays an intermediary role between the sales and production. He also supports Ömer Demiray with the personnel. Another role of him is to provide the face to face communication with the workers.
Ömer-Aydın Demiray and Emrah Aydoğan frequently come together and have discussions on macro-engineering, the current situation, and new technology and designing opportunities.
As a result, eventhough there are any obscene and efficient structures, the company is operating very efficiently.

CEO
Omer Demiray

PERSONNEL SALES PRODUCTION

Omer Demiray Omer Demiray
Emrah Aydogan Emrah Aydogan
(10 ) (20 ) Saws Drills Wires
secretaries salesman
accountants truck drivers
porters … Emrah Aydogan Aydin Demiray Aydin Demiray
… ( 90 ) Emrah Aydogan ( 20) ( 20 )
4 master-workman 1 master-workman
6 foreman 2 master-workman 2 foreman
workers 2 foreman workers
workers

THE STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT PROCESS
The Sonmak Company does not have any mission or vision statement. They say they are not that large of a company to have these statements. Their strategies vary according to the customer they are dealing with. They can change the strategies according to the payment dates or amounts of their products the customers buy. These strategies of the company are not written because they always change.
Despite the lack of mission and vision statements, the company has some aims that they are planning to accomplish in the next few years. The first one is to maintain their leadership in the Turkish Market. They say that they have achieved the Turkish and World standards of production in their products. The key in maintaining their leadership, according to them, is their marketing strategy. By their marketing strategies they gain customers and due to loyalty towards brands in this sector, the customers who have been gained do not usually change brands.
Their second aim is to enter the Greek Market. They say that the Greek Market is about to open and that they should not miss the opportunities in this market. One of their concerns related to this issue is that if they enter the Greek Market, there is a great chance that the American producers who operate in the Greek Market will enter the Middle East Market, and this can threaten Sonmak’s slice in the pie of this sector. The researches to determine the amount of competition in these markets and the feasibility are being continued to find the best solution, whether to enter the Greek Market or not. One other decision that has to be made if they decide to enter the Greek Market is that if they will participate in the market affairs directly or if they will distribute their products through local agents.
The third aim they will try to accomplish in the next five years is re-entering the Egyptian Market. The company was active in this market in the past and had a good share in the market but due to some reasons it became unfeasible to operate longer in the Egyptian Market and they withdrew their products. The owners of the Sonmak Company have become determined to re-enter the Egyptian Market because it has become feasible to operate there again with the new opportunities that has risen in the last years. They have an already set strategy due to their past experiences in the Egyptian Market. They know the market well and their previous customers are willing to buy their products again once they enter the market. Sonmak is quite sure that their sales in this market will be high.
Their fourth aim is to enter the American Market. They say that they have completed the pre-entry preparations and expanding strategies once they enter the market. They have been continuing to perform marketing games to convince the potential customers in the United States to buy their products and they will continue doing this until they get some concrete results. Sonmak is also preparing new strategies and marketing games to perform in the future too. They are confident in their selves for entering the American Market because there is no problem with their product span. They are currently producing eight products related to the market that is the total number of products related to this sector. There are only two or three companies in the United States that produces all eight products. Most of the companies produce only a couple of these products which is very advantageous for Sonmak once they get their brand accepted by the potential customers in the States. But the drawback at this point is that the companies, which produce couple of the products instead of all, are more specialized on those items than the firms which produce all eight of them, and this makes the market a lot more competitive. They also have very radical changes coming up, concerning the costs in their company, which will bring them to an advantageous position against their rivals, both in the Turkish Market and the American Market. When we asked them why they didn’t have such intentions to enter the American Market before, they told us that the American Market is a very competitive and dense market and that they had to be well prepared before they decided to enter it. They told us that their primary aim was to be the market leader in the Turkish Market, which took them 20 years to accomplish.
One other issue they have been given great importance during the past years are performance-raising strategies. They have been conducting a lot of researches to find the best way to psychologically motivate the workers.
They have been also performing researches to find the best and cheapest raw materials. Also laboratory researches are being done to come up with a synthetic material that can be used instead of diamonds. They say that they are a company, which tries to come up with the best, with their R&D programs, to maintain their leadership in the Turkish Market.
Operating Strategy
As all firms do, Sonmak has an “Operating Strategy” too. They currently have 11 machines and 160 workers working for them. They are able to supply the demand in the market with only one shift. When we asked them how they were planning to increase their production level if they decide to enter the Greek, Egyptian and American Markets they told us they were considering a few ways. The first one is to enlarge their production land, which has major drawbacks. If they decide to implement this strategy they will have a room shortage for their new machines. They do not have a very large factory so if they wanted to continue production by increasing the amount of machines and workers in a one-shift system this would be impossible. Another disadvantage of this idea is that once new machines are bought there has to be new electricity and water systems installed in the factory, which is a very expensive operation.
Another option to increase the production level is to convert the current single shift system into a double shift system. But this, according to them would also cost a lot. Despite the decrease in electricity costs they estimate they fear a decrease in the productivity of the workers, especially the ones that will work during the evening, if they shift to a double shift system. Also because they will have to hire an additional 160 workers the costs will be very high. Although all these costly operations they will have to choose one of these options. They have the double shift system plans all ready at the moment, but they are still continuing to consider other options.
Nowadays the problems they are facing concerning the operations of the company are the decrease of demand in the Turkish Market due to the crisis in the Turkish economy. They are now considering how they can decrease the production without being obliged to fire some of their workers. Because if there is a high production rate the costs for inventory will increase drastically which will make it more feasible to fire some of the workers. The easiest way of Sonmak to overcome the crisis is to let go of five of their workers but the owner of the company is keeping this as a last option. To decrease the production they are now having the factory painted which will last for 15 days. They say if this shortage in demand continues they will try to find other ways to decrease the production level but at last if it becomes impossible to keep those five workers they will have no choice rather than firing them.
Distribution Strategy
Sonmak’s “Distribution Strategy” consists of delivery of products, maintenance of these products during delivery, and orders coming from the customers. The company operates in 11 regions which are; Antalya, Istanbul, Canakkale, Denizli, Black Sea, Diyarbakir, Gaziantep, Afyon, East Anatolia, Marmara Islands, and Konya. They are currently operating in the first 8 regions because the other three regions are not feasible at the moment due to the low demand rates. They have a large share in the Turkish Market because they are the only company that distributes these products to all these regions. Normally firms do not distribute their products to Afyon, Denizli, Diyarbakir, and Gaziantep regions so this is a very large advantage for Sonmak.
They have a systematic distribution strategy. Every Monday, trucks are loaded with the new orders and leave the factory towards the previously mentioned regions. All the truck drivers are also sales persons and maintenance workers. When they reach to the firms in the regions they are responsible for, they set up the new discs, do their routine controls on the already existing machines and collect the new orders from the customers. None of the customers of Sonmak gives their orders by telephone or fax because of this system.
The key factor in Sonmak’s distribution strategies is knowing which sales person to send to which region. For example, they send someone from Black Sea to that region which makes it easier for them to sell their products because the sales person knows the way those people think and what they want. Or they do not send a sales person from Trabzon to deal with the customers in Bayburt although they are in the same region because they do not like each other.
Pricing Strategy
Pricing Strategies also play a great role in this sector as it does in all others. In determining the prices of their products they use some marketing tricks. They can produce blades that can cut 10,000-meter squares of marble as well as ones that can cut 20,000-meter squares of marble. This depends on the payment date determined according to the customer or the Turkish Lire volatility at that time period. To prevent the marble producers to get the highest profits in the market they also consult with rival firms about pricing strategies. None of the firms have a circulating price list but they consult with each other and determine their prices more or less the same. The only thing the marble producers think while they buy the products is the payment date. If Sonmak produces a blade that will last a year the marble producers will pay for it after a year so Sonmak keeps the capacity of the blades low.

Marketing Strategy
Marketing Strategies also play an important role in this sector. To convince the supervisor to advice the managers to buy their product they give some small gifts to them such as celebration cards. If you keep the supervisor pleasant you have your products bought buy that firm. One other marketing strategy is not allowing the drivers/sales persons to have a beard. The customers vary in culture and they do not want to loose a customer because of their religious thoughts. The Owner of Sonmak does not have a beard too, to be an example for the rest of the workers. Another strategy is related to how the sales persons look. They wear Sonmak sweaters and ties. To give a good impression the sales people are handed out nice looking agenda’s, folders and pens. Another marketing strategy they use is brand awareness. Small firms want to use Sonmak’s products because the large companies in the sector like Reisoglu and Orucoglu uses Sonmak’s products. They advertise themselves by saying they use the same machines as Reisoglu and Orucoglu does.
Advertising Strategy
The last factor is the Advertising Strategies. According to the owner of Sonmak, the company itself is an advertisement. It is a very wide company and has about 5,000 customers. They have their advertisements published in the World of Stones magazine. The clothes of the workers are all advertisements. They support Afyonspor, which is the football team of the largest marble-producing city in Turkey, both morally and economically. They helped the furnishing of the building of the Marble Association. They also have their ads published on the backside of the books this association publishes. Despite all these advertising they say the company does not need that much of advertising because they mostly find new customers upon references of the companies they already work with.

Research and Development
Technical team consisting of three engineers conducts the R&D works at Sonmak. The main aim of the R&D works are to produce products of better quality, lower cost, and longer life capacity. Because of this, they make continuous laboratory researches on production methods. Another aim of the R&D works is to become a company, which able to develop new technologies without depending on abroad.
Quality Control
Sonmak makes the quality control works with experienced technical team, consisting of engineers. They also have the total quality control understanding to increase the quality standard and to continue with the existing high quality level.
Because of this understanding, the products kept under control of service conditions. The mobile services control the performance of the products at their place and make the necessary workings in relative to the quality.
Sonmak is a big company that has been giving service for more than 26 years to Turkey’s industry with its products of best quality and with continual technological workings. For Turkey’s industry, it is an undeniable contribution, for they have produced synthetic diamonds for the first time in Turkey, with their own efforts. The only principle of Sonmak is the satisfaction of the customer with products that produced with high performance and low costs under high technology conditions. Sonmak is a 21st Century company with its experienced staff, vast know-how and professional approach.

SWOT ANALYSIS
Strengths
As strength is something a company is good at doing, or a characteristic that gives it enhanced competitiveness; our company gives several good examples about the very subject.
The firm is in the industry for the last 25 years, gaining an undeniable advantage on expertise and manufacturing know- how. As expertise and the secret know-how that is to be gained only by experience are the key success factors of the industry, the firm had the advantage to hold the 80% of the market share. They have low overall costs with better products, stronger name recognition and better customer services. Also, as the company is the first mover in the industry, it gained the chance of dominating and controlling the industry at the first place.
Another strength of the firm is its strong dealer and distribution network. The firm sends out eleven trucks every week to all the regions of Turkey, which has not been reached by any of its competitors. Sonmak even sends one of its trucks to the Afyon region where many of its competitors are located and can compete with each of them whit its quickness of distribution, high quality and low prices.
One other strength of the company is that they are designing and producing their own machines. By this way they hold the advantage of keeping their manufacturing secrets on their own. The firm is also holding valuable human assets, such as talented engineers who are also the managers of the firm; knowing about both manufacturing and marketing together. They have a great ability to motivate their employees by insuring both the workers and their families in health and other problems.
Moreover, the firm has very valuable intangible assets, such as brand-name image, company reputation, buyer good will, a high degree of employee and customer loyalty, and positive work climate and organizational culture. The firm also has a wide product selection with eight products which is a strength, and also a distinctive competencies because other firms do not have the ability to manufacture more than one product.
Weaknesses
A weakness is something that a company lacks or does poorly, Sonmak Company has unimportant weaknesses to be considered as a burden for the company.
First of all, the managers are in the need of having well-educated marketers who has to deal with the high-reputated companies such as Eczacıbaşı, Toprak, Kale Seramik, Reisoğlu and Oruçoğlu. In the current situation, only the managers are in the charge of providing these relationships, but this makes it hard for all.
The second condition to be considered as a weakness is the education level of the workers in the factory. Eventough the managers themselves are trying to educate the workers personally, there is no any training system to provide an education program. This can also be considered as a weakness. However, the number workers is low, limited to an average of 150 workers, a large training program is not feasible for the company.
Opportunities
An opportunity should provide a profitable growth and bring up a potential for competitive advantage, matching up well with the financial and organizational resource capabilities which the company can already possesses or can acquire.
Thus, the only opportunity that can be acquired by our company is expanding into new geographic markets such as Greece and U.S.A. For these two new markets the researches and analysis are already concluded. In order to reach these opportunities, the company believes that these markets are feasible and will bring profit.
Threats
The external threats are conditions that make burden for the future profitability and market standing of the company. Our company faces several threats for the future. However, all these threats can be solved with the good management strategy of the firm for they have the ability to stand before these threats.
The first threat that the company faces being the most dangerous is the company itself. As mentioned before, the company is the market leader. However, this should not bring them the lethargy and stop them from their current working strategies such as working on low manufacturing cost and better quality. However, the firm does not aim to give up and as long as they are aware of this threat, they would not fail.
The second threat for the company is the current crisis and economical uncertainty in Turkey.

CRISIS AND THE CURRENT SITUATION
In general, the raw materials that are synthetic metal powder and diamond are imported from Germany, France and U.S.A. with a dollar base. The firm processes these marterials and sell them on the TL base and with maturity.
Moreover, the cost of one worker is with an average of 500 dollar with wages, insurances, meals and other services included, making an $80.000 of total worker expense. The salesmen who travel the Turkey are also increasing the expenses, for they spend all their work through Monday to Friday, driving across Turkey, visiting all mines. These people eat outside and stay at hotels which should be considered as costly fixed expense.
With the current crisis, the firm faced a great loss in their balance and therefore are trying not to loose more money. It is a fact that, with the current crisis, the petroleum, electric and water expenses are of increased prices. As inflation has increased, the firm had to make an increase in the wages. As a result, all the fixed expenses have risen up to high levels because of the crisis and the authorities of the firm declare that their aim is not to make profit, but more importantly not to make a deficit.
The firm’s only inflow is today’s checks which are to be cashed months away, so they believed that they have to have an amortization stock which would compensate them for at least two months. Their current strategy is to carefully decide on the prices; while taking the maturity and the inflation in to consideration. Their other aim is to keep their workers for they do not believe in lay offs; ethically, and culturally.
The firm produces its own machines and they also have the technology, and engineers to design and produce automated machines. However, because of ethics, again, they do not want to make these automated machines and lay off their workers. They believe that if ten other firms do the same thing; around 1500 workers, therefore families would suffer and think if thought in a broader view, if the number of unemployed would increase, they would become a threat for them and the whole country.

2.2 The Types of the Kitchens with Relations of the other Spots :

Residences kitchens are in three types due to the relations with other groups and actions inside of them. That they divided in their using ways, are planned in their properties and users needs.

2.2.1 Closed (fully separated) kitchens:

They do not contains living area (Grandjen, 1973). There is only food storage and preparing procedure. These actions, are basically cooking, preparing, washing and storing, As these kitchens provide only food preparing process, they designed smaller for easing the action (Arcan, 1992).

2.2.2 Kitchens with Dining Room :

This is the kitchen which contains dining place (Baytin, 1980). In this kind of kitchen, as it is including the dining place, is the best solution is to have a part able dining device, so working area does not get smaller and is ideal for working families. As it is easier to have a meal in this kitchen, it is ideal for time and energy consuming.

2.2.3 Open kitchens :

The design of open kitchens based on planning kitchen and living spots together. The difference of open kitchens from kitchens with dining spots is the action includes both living and dining. The action in the kitchen becomes not a priority anymore, tie primary place is living and dining spots (Agat, 1991). The kitchen may be closed by a curtain or rolling door.

2.3 Kıtchen Types in Form :

In form of working areas kıtchen can be ;I, L, U, Hall style shapes(Agat, 1991).

2.3.1 ‘ I ‘ shaped (one wall) kitchen :

The primary functions on one counter and it is lining near by a wall. One side counters sides and the circulation on it is smaller than 110,130 cm, therefore the width of the kitchen can be taken down to 240 cm. Windows mostly placed on narrow side walls, while the counter placed between the long wall (Arcan, 1992).
In the property, ‘ I ‘ shaped kitchens can be placed in 350 cm length. These types, can be easily used in open kitchens. In figure 4 (Agat, 1991)
Figure 4plans of ‘I’ shaped kitchens

It would be a good idea to put dining table in the kitchen, while the sizes are enough. The light coming from the side may not be enough if the counter get too long (Agat, 1991).

2.3.2 ‘L’ shaped kitchen :

The working areas (counters) Placed on two vertical walls, working triangle is not divided and empty spot can be used for dining (Baytin, 1980).
Washing spot should take the light. According to placed ‘L’ sides closer, oven and washer put on the each sides of ‘L’. To put a dining table to a ‘L’ shaped kitchen, it should be in square form. This shape brings a better effiency (figure 5). ‘L’ form counters, can be used in island type kitchens. The disadvantage of ‘L’ shaped kitchen, is to find a solution for the corner (Agat, 1991).

Figure 5 : ‘ L ‘ formed kitchen

2.3.3 ‘U’ shaped kitchen :

This is a kitchen which is the working areas placed on three sides. Although working senders close to each other, working triangle can be divided (Baytin, 1980). Usually used in big kitchens. It brings too many working and storing spots up. Corners need special care.

Figure 6: ‘ U ‘ type kitchen

2.3.4 Hall (parallel) type kitchen :

In this type kitchen, there is no unused area which counters placed on two parallel walls. Compare to ‘ I ‘ type kitchens, turning back movements is more struggling ‘ I ‘ type kitchens, turning back movements is more struggling (Baytin, 1980). For this reason, the working spots should be placed close to each other on one side.

Figure 7: Hall type kitchen

2.4 Action and Action Spots in Property’s Kitchen :
Kitchen is the workshop of preparing meals by the owners. Main action group is preparing meals with the materials brought from outside which is ready or not (Agat, 1991).
Braveness of the actions in kitchen belongs to coordination of actions and sub-division of them. It is shown at figure 8 (Baytin, 1980).
1 2 3
Preperation Cooking Service
# Opening # in oven # keeping meal hot
# peeling # boiling # preparing eating devices
# separation # frying # servicing meal to the dishes
# carving # grilling
# measuring
4 5 6
. Eating Washing Storing
#preparing the table # jamming the dishes # storing foods
#eating # disposing the garbage # storing cooking devices
#cleaning the table # washing-rinsing # storing eating devices
# drying # storing electric devices
# storing cleaning materials
Figure 8 The actions in kitchen (Bayitn, 1980)

2.4.1 Areas for preparing meal :

The main preparing area is the counter. The most important spot on counter is preparing place between washer and the own. This surface replaced close to the fridge, and to rage of devices and food. (Baytin, 1980). Preparing counter needs water supply close to it. It needs a washer on the left hand side.
Below of this area there should be drawer for forks, knives, spears and below of this drawer there may be a cupboard for pots, on the counter spices close to reach, and a placed under the waster. (Agat, 1991).

2.4.2. Disk washing areas :

The main devices of the disk washing are the sink and disk washer . if there is counters in both side of the sink it continued the device(Agat,1991).

The sink is the one of the most used device in triangle and should be placed on one of the triangle so it can become a time and energy consuming device (Gönen,1990).

Figure 9 Sink , fridge and oven triangle (Arcan,1992)

The working triangle is changeable for each kind and size of the kitchens(Arcan,
1992).

Figure 10 Different varieties of working triangles (Arcan 1992)

2.5 Devices and Properties of Them in Kitchen

The devices in kitchens placed on two horizontal areas. In the first design; sink cupboards, cupboards with cover and drawer, corner and side finishing cupboards, ovens, dish washers, counters, sinks with one or more parts and faucets devices has been placed. The measures are 85-90 cm height and 50-65 depth. In the second design; there is cupboards with glass cover, corner and side finishing cupboards , cupboards for glasses, shelves for species and aspirators. The measures are 40-60 cm higher than the counter, 30-35 cm depth and 40-95 cm height. In vertical design, there is a connection between two horizontal device area which has cupboards with drawers and covers and shelves for storing, ovens at eye level, micro wawes. The measures are 50-60 cm depth and 195-240 cm height.
2.5.1 Top cupboards:

These are the shelves with 30-35 cm depth, 40-95 cm heights and width is due to the kitchen fixed to the wall at the height of 125-150 cm. The cupboards placed under the oven’s width are 30,5 cm. Usually there is a glassed shelves at top cupboards (figure 11)
Figure 11 Glassed cupboards (Leicht- poggenpohl,1990).

Top cupboards are being used for glasses, dishes and dry foods. But they placed rarely used tools at the very top spots. They are designed with covers or non (figure 12)

Figure 12 Top cupboards using kitchen (Poggenpohl,1990).

2.5.2 Floor Cupboard:

Floor cupboards are the cupboards between 85-90 cm height, 50-65 depth and different width, staring food and tools. The height of the cupboards are depending on users measures and washing machine or oven’s dimensions.

Usually has covers, drawers and shelves designed for sink , faucet and range up-on counter is really important. The cupboard contains sink is a store for trash cane, electrical devices, towels, cleaning materials, drawers for eating tools, stores for dry food and rarely used tools.

2.5.3 Corner cupboards:

Usually, used in top or floor cupboards corners open or covered shelves in ‘L’ or ‘U’ kitchens . the difficulty about the corners in this type kitchens fixed with these cupboards. On corner cupboards we can use aspirator, sink or range up-on counter.

2.5.4 Counters:

Counter is a work shop of fixed on the top of floor cupboards which is put hot pots and subjected to different varieties of sharp tools by users. Because of this tough situation, the material chosen for a counter is really important as it is open to scratch, erosion and spotted.
Counters; if they are placed between fridge, oven and sink, to be leveled to them, if has to be in 85-90 cm height and 60-65 cm depth.

2.5.5 Covers (Doors):

The covers used on kitchen cupboards are in different shapes like opens with circular move, draw and star covers. The most prevalent ones are the circular move covers.
Ovens are being used for cooking foods which has been prepared in kitchens. The most prevalent ovens are furnaces prepared in kitchens and range combination. Beside of this combination there is also new technologic range up-on-counters, embedded furnaces. Ranges designed to put in the counter and furnaces embedded under the counter or on eye level.

2.5.6 Aspirators:

Aspirators are for reducing and sucking out the smoke, smell, vapor and hot air caused by oven or during the coking (Özerdim,1991). There is two different type aspirators, with or without funnel. In the type that has a funnel, has an equine working indifferent speed which is sucking the smell and smoke and throwing out from a steel or aluminum funnel after filtering in its mechanic filter. There is an extra dust filter inside the aspirators without funnels. This filter should be changed periodically (Arredmento,1997). Aspirators are place in the board on the oven in three different ways. These are fixed under the cupboard, fixed inside the cupboard and between the cupboards with a chimney hood (figure 13).

Figure 13 different aspirators using in kitchens

2.5.7 Sinks and Faucets:

Sinks are the devices for washing dishes and foods, produced from steel, enamel or synthetic materials. Sinks can be righter one or two pieces. We can placed a disposal under the sink. Corner sink can be used in ‘L’ or ‘U’ kitchens.

2.6 Establishments:

Illumination, ventilation and heating is the establishments of kitchens. The organization of kitchens should be considered surrounding facts so there would be no problems later. They are shown as:

2.6.1 Illumination Establishment:

It is divided in to two, natural and artificial. For health of psychology or physiology, natural illumination has to be used in kitchen.

Designers should be careful about:

• Latitude of building placed the window,
• Direction of the window,
• Seasons,
• Day time,
• Reflection of the floor
• Dimension of the room,
• The ratios of room’s surfaces,
• Tools used for shadowing.(Taşpınar,1977)

Figure 14 Illumination of kitchen with natural light

• General illumination
We have to use a general illumination for fitted usage and being seen inside of the cupboards. In this illumination it is the best to use scattered and without shadow.
Celina should be illuminate with fluorescent light from the top of the top cupboards for this process, ceiling has to be flat white and the distance between the source has to be at least 30-40 cm(figure 15).

Figure 15 General kitchen illumination(Şerefhanoğlu,1977).

• Illumination of counters- local illumination

The best illumination for kitchens is the illumination on counters. There is a need to illuminate counters locally for preparing, cooking, and washing.

2.6.2 Ventilation System:

• To support fresh our for health and comfort,
• To increase heat forfeiting and speeding vaporization up (Physiologic freshening) according to heat comfort,
• Self ventilation of the residence during hot days,
• To reduce rusting and fungus during humidity is 70% or higher.

We need a funnel to remove waste gasses, vapor and/or smells created cooking (Agat, 1991). Today’s kitchen has aspirators on the oven installed in or under the top cupboard. It can remove rapidly vapor or smell if it is fixed with a funnel.

2.6.3 Heating System:

Human body aerates heat with burning foods with oxygen and also always looses heat loosing this heat follows convection, transportation and vaporizations. Human kids will be comfortable only if he will equalize the circuit. Need of heating is coming because of to increase the place’s heat to balance human body’s temperature and balance the heat transferring, to feel more comfortable(Mak. Müh. Odası.1993)

3-ERGOMOMY OF KITCHEN

3.1 Organization of kitchen areas and devices:

In kitchen area organization we will consider the ‘action areas’. Action area is the area that the motions taken place by users. These actions are caused by human measures and bordering the action areas (Arcan,1992).
Action areas and the devices areas and circulation areas should be related with kitchen’s functionality with organizations of kitchen area(Arcan,1992).
If we accept the user and the devices, to make this system efficient, there should be an accommodation. We can take dates from body’s anthropometrics measures to develop this system. Anthropometrics dates will be used for fixation of device’s dimension and stapes and human’s working areas. We have to know the users measures according to design the area less tire ding and time consumable(Gören 1993).

3.2 Ergonometric Manners:

Ergonomy is a science that relating all ‘working circulation’ system, with human’s psycho-physiologic and all cultural capacity and limits(Toga 1978). In an other way ‘is studying human, machine and environment relations, and finding solutions with using anatomy, physiology and psychology: is the world fixed ‘ergo’, (work) and ‘nomy’ (science) in Greek. That is why kitchen always being used in ergonomy literature(figure 16). Because as it is shown in historical development, kitchen is accept as real working spot(Ünügür 1997)
Figure 16 Projection of ergonomy-human relation(Singleton, 1967)

The appropriate working inside the kitchen means, the area which is fixed with condition and needs of human working. To design the appropriate working area is to cause minimum hardness and minimum force to make a job (Gören,1990)

Although there is too many issues on the ergonomy of the kitchens, usually based on three subjects. These are the order of devices, dimensioning the working surfaces and storing(Ünügür,1997)

3.2.1 Working areas desining:

Mc Cormick made the principles on suitable working areas designing so we can use it on the order of kitchen devices(Ünügör,1997)
The order of importance is the most important device should be at easiest reaching spot.
The principle of using density; the most frequent using devices has to be in the easiest reaching spot. With this rule, the ‘working triangle’ shouldn’t be cut out bye any other device which is fridge, oven and the sink.
‘I’ type kitchens which has only one wall is usually too long and good for small properties. ‘H’ type, which has devices in both sides, is not useable because of no corners. People can break off the working triangle. Usually ‘H’ type kitchens are related with balconies. In ‘L’ type kitchens people cannot break off the triangle and the unused corner be a dinning area. It is a disadvantage to have cupboards at corners and hard to use. ‘U’ and ‘L’ type kitchen never interferences the working areas and center of working close to multi-using. ‘U’ type kitchens are ideal for big residence(Grandjaen,1973)
Order of usage; devices should be set up in a line according to their action order. For right-handers they should be in an order of from left to right. Bateson(1953), Wyhte(1963), Grandjaen(1973) found same results.
The order of devices according to ergonomic solutions are, fridge-counter-sink-oven-counter-cupboard.

3.2.2 Dimensioning the working surfaces:

The researching about hands and arms showed the must relaxed position of the arm is close to body and vertical. Working while sitting or standing the requirements about hands is lifting front arm standing vertical to the body and the upper arm stickled to the body without working. The height of working surfaces cannot be figure with out studying on users anthropometrics measures. The smallest ratio and the working speed causing muscle ache is 8 cm below the elbow(Steidl, braton,1962).
Due to the technical abilities of hand and arm, the working surfaces for preparing meals should be horizontal in kitchens(poole,1993)
A working are, has to be designed and organized under the ergonomic critics and reaching limits. Devices, organization of tads has to bring up an easy movement area. All needs should be in a circle in front of the user. About the height of grabbing movements is the center of the body(apx. Stomach height).
The most arm movements done in the working counters are hands twisted from elbow and close to the body. The most efficient usage of hands is, 25-31 cm far from eyes, close and in right angle(Grandjean,1969)
The most brief movements of hands are the moves from the body to the reaching point. The most efficient hand usage is at the elbow level and close to the body (Grandjean,1969).
Without studying and concerning about differences of users’ anthropometrics measures and variations on actions can not be solved the problem of designing working surfaces in the depth of working surface has to be 55-60 cm; portable counters and/or tables should be in the kitchen. The width of working surfaces has to be , 90-120 cm between fridge and sink; at least 60 cm between sink and oven and at least 30 cm between oven and cupboard. The height leveling of working surfaces is more complex and requires different quantities.
In general the principal to measure the height of surface is to subtract the height of lower body (from leg to elbow level) from the device’s height. But the users anthropometrics measures and from the device’s height. But the users anthropometrics measures and the action causes extreme differences.

3.2.3 Storing:

Another important point of kitchens’ ergonomic solution is the storing action. Researching show in storing action using frequency, function and order of usage is important (Ünügür, 1997).
Because of this the size of the storing devices is important, same parts are categorised as ‘weak’. Especially drawers of the stores should be easy to use, while using it. It is shown in figure 17

Figure 17: Vertical storage due to easy usage (Dixon, 1991).

On the other hand we can divide the actions in the kitchen into four groups.( Corney 1972), made a researching about the functionality and he put washing, preparing, cooking and servicing in order. The foundation about storing is shown in figure 18 and 19. According to this; reaching, importance, function order and frequency is prominence and should be find an ergonomic solutions for storage (Ünügür, 1997).
There has to be enough room for tools. Some tools are being used for several times during preparing a meal, those should be in front our eyes and has to be placed the nearest cupboards, the ones we don’t use frequently has to be in top cupboards or the forest ones (Grandjean, 1973).

Figure 18: Preparing, cooking and serving areas and devices (Ünügür, 1997).

Figure 19: Dish washing areas and tools (Ünügür, 1997).

3.2.4Users Quantities:

The devices designed for human are related to their quantities. We should know human’s body type, dimensions and ability of movements give the anthropometrics quantity of their society (Arcan, 1992).
User’s measures are changeable for every societies’ anthropometrics groups (Ünügür, 1973). The most important ones shown as:

• differences between nations,
• differences between regions,
• different working groups,
• different ages
• different genders (Bayazıt, 1969).

3.3 Dimensions of kitchen action Areas:

Living and working areas has a lot of differences. The area of working is three dimensional. Working areas are designed as horizontal, vertical and oblique. We are designing the maximums at dimensioning the working area (Baytin, 1980).
The normal working area is without moving the upper – arm, it is only the area created by the front arm. In this area we are using mostly our hands.
The max. Working area is the arms can reach any point and can get things.
The figure 20 and 21 shows the data about working area and measure. The all working area, should be found with the devices types end volumes, type of action, the way of action (Baytin, 1980).

Figure 20: horizontal working area (Baytin, 1980).

Figure 21: vertical working area (Baytin, 1980).

The action areas should be well designed for efficiency of using kitchen areas. The needs of users about actions, moving areas and usage of devices are shown in figure 22,23,24 and 25.

Figure 22 Reaching heights

Figure 23 The action areas between wall and table

Figure 24 The action areas between wall and sink

Figure 25 The action areas between dish washer and oven

4. THE RULES OF PLANNING KITCHEN

We can show the facts effecting the planning, so we can find out the planning principals. It is thought that, these theory explanations can help to plan kitchen.

4.1 Design of The Kitchens:

Design is to criticize the facts has been before, to receive the needs, the phase of suggestion new solutions which has been found by examination with knowledge, ability and skill.
The phase of designing of kitchen is the time consuming of, intelligence, analysis, synthesis, and valuation. Step of designing phase is related to each other. The data of the order of this relation is shown as it. The output of the architect is related to intelligence’s, the out put is related to synthesis. Output will be a data for valuation and the designing, phase will be ended(Arcan, 1992).

We can easily find out that there is a difference between the kitchen and the hole residence while we will work on the actions done in the kitchen, working areas and the devices.

4.1.1 Technical Needs :

• Durability (construction ,breakage, filthiness, resistance against dust)
• Production against accident (electrical devices’ accident, slipping, hitting, crashing, cutting)
• Replacement in residence

4.1.2. Surrounding Needs:

• Physical needs

i) vision (illumination, intimacy)
ii) hearing(to be heart, privacy)
iii) touching
iv) atmospheric conditions (heat, humidity, smell, dust)

• Place needs

i) vision (measures of user, area of action and devices)
ii) shape
iii) separation for action area (preparing, cooking, washing, storing)

4.2.3 Human needs :

# Action
# Health
i) body health
ii) surrounding health
# Psychological reeds
i) Surrounding percievements (color, mass, place perceiving)
# Social needs
i) need able abilities
ii) needable tools
iii) intimacy [ relations of places, smell, privacy of sound (Bayazit, 1978) ]

4.3 Plannig the equipments of kitchen :

The most important thing in kitchen designing is to get the most benefit from the tools and the properties from users static-dynamic, anthropometrics measurements, we can get cleared of tools properties. The facts considered while designing the kitchen is shown in 4.3.1, 4.3.2 and 4.3.3.

4.3.1 Unrelated properties :

# sex (gender)
# race (Ethnic background)
# income group
# age
# cultural group
# number of users

4.3.2 Unrelated properties :

# audile
i) vision
ii) hearing
iii) touching
iv) tasting
v) smelling
# Anthropometrics
i) static
ii) dynamic
# perceptive-mental

4.3.3 Completing properties :

*gender *shape properties
*weight *size properties
*colour *age of tools (Yücel, 1990).

4.4 Planning of action areas of kitchen:

All kitchens should have enough room for, preparing, cooking servicing, washing actions and also should make action areas possible to storing devices for each of them and again they has to be flexible enough to put new devices too. Action areas, has to be planed on users needs, and sizes. Devices should be easy to clean and durable to hits and aging. In action areas, devices have to placed both in relation and not both erring users. Action areas also should not be harmful to users as psychological and physiologic while designing.

4.4.1 Properties about actions:

We can give actions in kitchen in this summary:
• type of action (preparing, cooking, servicing, eating, washing, storing)
• style of action
• relations- orders of actions
• sub – actions
• or amazing the action (Yücel, 1990).

4.4.2 Properties about devices:

These are the summaries about devices in kitchen:
• strength against mechanical effects (hit, friction, corrosion, scratch)
• strength against physical effects (filthing, grease, dusted)
• strength against water and humadity (hot – cold water, vapor)
• strength against sun light (UV beams)
• strength against biotic and abiotic (fungus, insects, micro-organisms)
• strength against temperature (wet and dry hot)
• being functional
• portablibitity

4.5Planing kitchens:

The reactions of users to the place of kitchen in residence, designing of it, actions taken place in it and against devices are all different in planning. Theirs social, psychological, economic and ergonomic behaviours put this difference. Although users needs may be the same, their psychology, family types, cultural manners, social and economic abilities effect this solving with this problems, needs and feeding needs for different user groups would be primary subject (Yücel, 1990), it will help to figure out the dimensional largeness (figure 26)

Figure 26 Problem structure table (Köprülü, 1991)

The facts considered while kitchen designing are shown as:

• Definitional properties.
i) replacement in residence
ii) order and replacement of devices
iii) shape properties
iv) size properties

• Actional properties
i) physical properties (temperature, visual, audio)
ii) psycho –social properties (style, privacy, personal area)

5- CONCLUSION

5.1The place of kitchen:

Users life style is rapidly changing by needs and this influences the organisation at kitchen’s place and devices. Anything upgrading the user satisfaction is shown below.
Kitchens should placed exactly according to the types and has to not placed to the area taking sun light because of prepared or/and unprepared foods.
It should placed close to entrance because of easiness of unload the packages.
To place the kitchen connected to the dinning room or dinning table in the living room makes the users carry the meal and device easier and causes less physiologic tiredness.
Most of owners are asking for a service window from kitchen to the dinning room or the dinning table in the living room.

5.2Actions and Action Areas in the Kitchen:

The order of devices or the counter is counter- washer- counter- oven- dinning table. In this relation from devices to the dinning spot order is following from left to right.

5.3Devices in the Kitchen and Their Properties:

It has seen that there is top and floor cupboards, counter, washer and table in all of the kitchens. While designing the devices, we have to consider this result and place a storage and special cupboards.
Also should be considered about electrical and gas devices such as fridge, oven, dish washer, heater and water heater.
Mostly Kitchens are being used in evening. So it is important to work on general and local illumination. In general illumination, light should not cause any shadow and illuminate all area and it has to not disturb the vision. Ceiling must be smooth and white. In local illumination, has to be at top cupboards and from the bottom of cupboards on the counter. Counters can be illuminate with smaller, thin florescence light. From top of the cupboards, spot lights are the ideal. For dinning area hanged lights can be used. It is important to illuminate the kitchen with sun light.
In general, the ventilation of wasted gasses, smell and vapour is really important and it requires absorption system. Especially kitchens in the same area with living rooms, for a good ventilation, owners are using aspirators.

5.4Organization of Kitchen’s Area and Devices:

Fridge, sink and oven is the most used devices in the kitchen. The devices building the working triangle’s distance is measured 4.46 m. Due to the desire and appreciate of the owner, it can be between 4.50m- 6.00m.
For right- headers, the order of devices must be from left to right. According to this, it should be, from left to right, fridge – counter – sink – counter – oven. The distances between devices are, fridge – sink, 90 – 135 cm ; sink – oven, 60 – 90 cm.

1-It is clear from the passage that…………. .
***A)more Czechs speak German than any other foreign language
B)as their own language is so difficult, Czechs prefer German
C)everyone in the Czech Republic speaks several languages
D)Czechs usually laugh at foreigners who try to speak Czech
E)Czechs learn English during childhood and German later

2-The author informs us that……….. .
A)it is now illegal for Czechs to speak Russian
B)Czechs do not want to speak German as it reminds them of the German occupation
C)most Czech schools offer courses in the Russian language
D)the influence of Russia is still felt in certain areas of the Czech Republic
***E)Czechs were once required to study Russian at school

3-This passage would most likely appear in ………… .
A)a grammar book of the Czech language
B)a history book of the Czech Republic
C)a book about English language teaching
***D)a travel guide for the Czech Republic
E)an article on the social history of the Czech people

The religion of the Jewish people, Judaism, is based largely on the teachings of Moses and other leaders as recounted in the Old Testament of the Bible. It is significant for being the oldest monotheistic religion – belief in one supreme being, which is given various names by the Jews themselves, including Yahweh, Jehovah and God. The two other important sacred books are the Talmud and the Torah, which contain the many laws and observances orthodox Jews are supposed to keep. The principal festival is the Feast of Passover: the principal place of worship is the synagogue and the priests are called Rabbis. Judaism is also noted for being the religion from which Christianity and Islam developed. There are about 14 million followers, about 3 million in Israel itself, and the remainder distributed throughout the world.

4-The passage suggests that Judaism is an important religion because …………….. .
A)it has three gods, all of whom are extremely powerful
B)it has many laws that the orthodox must follow
C)Moses was brought up under Jewish tradition
***D)it was the first religion to believe in a single god
E)it has the largest number of followers among the major religions

5-It can be understood from the passage that………….. .
A)Yahweh and Jehovah are the names of Jewish holy writings
B)synagogues are rarely used these days, except by the orthodox
C)the constitution of Israel is based largely on the Torah
D)the job of the Rabbi is to enforce the law of the Talmud
***E)the Jewish religion has at least three important sacred books

6-According to the passage, ………………… .
A)a large majority of the world’s Jews live in Israel
***B)Christianity and Islam have historical ties with Judaism
C)Judaism is the most common religion in the world
D)there is quite a strong Christian influence on Judaism
E)the Jewish religion is influenced by the teachings of both Islam and Christianity

Laws are the collection of rules by which any state maintains order within a society. In Great Britain, the law-making process is conducted by Parliament. Proposed new laws are presented as Bills and if, after debate, they are accepted by a majority vote in the House of Commons, they duly become law. In Great Britain, as in most countries, there are several distinct types of laws. Constitutional law is concerned with the processes of the government itself Company law deals with the operation of many of the nation’s commercial and financial activities. These are branches of State law, that is, laws made by acts of Parliament. Common law, by contrast, is based on past decisions taken by the courts on various issues.

7-The aim of laws, as described in the passage, is …….. .
A)to punish people who insist on violating them
B)to secure the people’s control of the government
***C)to protect the government and people from chaos
D)to increase the government’s authority over the people
E)to keep threats to the existence of the state under control

8-The author informs us that Constitutional law………….. .
A)cannot be changed by simple acts of Parliament
B)is composed of several distinct types of Bills
C)causes great concern to Members of Parliament
D)has little bearing on the government of Britain
***E)is related to the way the government does its job

9-As is stated In the passage, the difference between State and common laws is that………. .
A)State laws only effect Members of Parliament, not common people
B)common law was only valid in the past, while State law is still used
C)only State laws actually have financial consequences to the people
***D)the former are made by acts of Parliament, the latter, by the courts
E)the latter is applied to common people, but not to parliamentarians

The term ‘castle’ is most commonly applied to the fortresses belonging to European kings or important nobles during the Middle Ages. The first of this type were built by the Normans in France, during the eleventh century. They were constructed of wood and consisted simply of a tower built on a mound and stood in a courtyard, which was surrounded by a fence and a ditch. By the twelfth century, the wooden tower had given way to a stone one, containing living accommodation for the whole household, centred on the Great hall, and surrounded by a strong wall. As new methods of attack developed, the outer fortifications became more elaborate in order to withstand them.

10-We can conclude from the passage that…………. .
***A)a castle was a certain type of early defensive structure
B)every noble in the Middle Ages had his own castle
C)the first fortress was built in Europe in the Middle Ages
D)the first castle built by the Normans remained inhabited for a century
E)castles were used for defence, not as residences

11- The author makes it clear that in the12th century, …. .
A)the Normans became less influential in Europe
***B)the towers were built of stone
C)a castle consisted only of a tower
D)a castle was still a residence only for the army
E)castles were strong enough to repel any attack

12-We learn that castles became stronger and more defensive………….. .
A)as new and better construction methods were developed
B)as they began to accommodate larger populations
***C)in reaction to the development of new military strategies
D)as more and more buildings were added for the increasing population
E) when stone and wood were used together as building materials

Mozart made his first visit to Prague with his wife Constance in 1787, staying with his friend and patron Count Thun. A year earlier, his opera The Marriage of Figaro, which had failed to please the opera snobs in Vienna, was given a marvellous reception in Prague. Encouraged by this, he chose to premiere his next opera, Don Giovanni, in Prague rather than in Vienna. He arrived with an incomplete score in hand, and finished it there, dedicating it to the ‘good people of Prague’. Mozart’s final visit to Prague took place in 1791, the year of his death. The climax of the stay was the premiere of Mozart’s final opera, La Calmness di Tito, according to legend, completed on the coach from Vienna to Prague.

13- We learn from the passage that TheMarriage of Figaro………….. .
A)was given its first ever performance in 1786, in Prague
B)was more highly appreciated in Vienna than in Prague
***C)had obviously not been a success in Vienna
D)was clearly the first opera that Mozart had ever written
E)encouraged Mozart to write his next opera Don Giovanni

14-The passage tells us that Mozart…………… .
***A)gave the first performance of Don Giovanni in Prague
B)wrote and performed two complete operas while in Prague
C)only visited Prague twice, 4though he really liked the city
D)died in 1791 while he was visiting Prague to see his opera
E)moved from Vienna to Prague, where he was more appreciated

15-It is mentioned in the passage that La Clemenza di Tito…… .
A)was Mozart’s least popular opera in Prague
B)was based on a legend which Mozart had heard in Prague
C)brought Mozart to Prague for a very short visit
D)was given its final form in Prague
***E) was apparently unfinished when Mozart left Vienna

Ever since the 1978 Camp David Agreement and the 1979 peace treaty signed between Egypt and Israel, the Suez Canal has been filled with a constant flow of maritime traffic. It is 163 km long, but still not wide enough to accommodate modern ships sailing in opposite directions. There are plans to widen the canal but, for now, ships can pass only at two points – the Bitter Lakes and Al-Ballan. With a depth of 19,5 metres, the canal is deep enough for most ships, except for super tankers. The canal is the prime source of hard currency for Egypt’s troublesome economy. Each of the 50 ships that pass through the canal each day is charged a fee based on its size and weight. The average fee is about $70,000.

16- It is implied in the passage that………… .
A)the famous Camp David is located near the Suez Canal
B)the Suez Canal was constructed sometime after 1979
C)there are no bridges anywhere that cr6ss the Suez Canal
***D)in the period before 1979, fewer ships used the Suez Canal
E)the traffic on the Suez Canal makes shipping dangerous

17- The passage suggests that…………. .
A)the Egyptians could make more money if they widened the Suez Canal
B)without the canal, the Egyptian government would be much better off
C)super tankers must proceed very carefully while going through the canal
***D)the bigger and heavier a ship is, the more it has to pay to use the canal
E)the Israelis get a sizeable commission from the Suez Canal’s traffic